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The PRACTICAL 
CABINET MAKER 



AND 



Furniture Designer's Assistant 



WITH ESSAYS ON 

HISTORY OF FURNITURE, TASTE IN DESIGN, COLOR 
AND MATERIALS, WITH FULL EXPLANATION OF 
THE CANONS OF GOOD TASTE IN FURNITURE 

Together with Many Practical Directions for Making 
Cabinet Work Generally, and a Number of Pieces of 
Furniture in Particular, along with Hundreds of Recipes 
for Finishing, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing and 
Gilding all kinds of Cabinet Work :: :: :: 



By FRED T. HODGSON, F. R. I. C. A. 

Author of "Practical Treatise on the Steel Sojmrk," "Modern 
Carpentry,*' "Hardwood Finisher, Wood-Carving," Etc., Etc. 




Beautifully and Copiously Illustrated with over aoo Drawings 

and Sketches, Showing Various Styles of Furniture, from the 

Most Ancient to the Most Modern 



CHICAGO 
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 



^ 



-A 



Y \vc 



Copyright 1910 

by 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 

Chicago 



CLA356173 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

In preparing this work, I think it unnecessary to 
waste time and space in publishing a preface, which 
would at least occupy from three to five pages, and 
which at best, would be of little service to my readers ; 
so I will content myself, and perhaps serve my readers 
better by inserting in these remarks the gist of what 
would be expected to appear in a preface, along with 
other material that may be both interesting and useful. 

In these days, specialization in "Furniture-making" 
has in a great measure robbed the trade of many of its 
charms, as well as its claims to the dignified position it 
once held. 

In the "good old times" every man who could hold 
up his head and say truthfully "I am a Cabinet- 
Maker," meant that he had given long years of appren- 
ticeship to every branch and every detail of the busi- 
ness. His assertion, when interpreted, meant "that he 
could take timber, saw it, plane it, mould it, glue it, 
veneer it, join it, carve it, finish it, and upholster it, 
all by hand." It meant a full knowledge of everything 
connected with the manufacture from the entrance to 
the yard and to that of the wareroom. What might be 
expected of such workmen, in the way of completeness 



10 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

and thoroughness, could be had for the hiring. Their 
experience was indelibly stamped upon their work. 

Invention has disarranged this most certainly. The 
labor-saving machinery of later years has dispensed 
with something of the old-time necessity. Circular 
saws, jig and band saws, stickers, planers, jointers, 
carvers, and the many contrivances, for economizing 
time, have made those long terms of apprenticeship in 
a measure, unnecessary, and to-day men are not Cabi- 
net-Makers in the sense we have referred to, but they 
are competent to do either circular-sawing, band-saw- 
ing, moulding, or planing, etc., alone, and but little else. 
This subdivision of labor has been the outgrowth of 
the advance of invention. 

Often you will have among your applicants for 
work, men who belong to both classes — representatives 
of the "old school" as it were, and fledgelings who, 
having rubbed furniture three months in some manu- 
factory, and consider themselves fit subjects for a di- 
ploma. It will be found to be advantageous to mix 
these two elements. Each has claims which are worthy 
of consideration. The former class, from having been 
drilled so faithfully in every department of the work; 
although, workmen of this class are apt to be wedded a 
little too firmly to the methods in use when they were 
apprentices. Workmen of the latter kind are progres- 
sive, and restless under restraint; perhaps a little too 
much so sometimes. But the two average well, and the 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 11 

conservatism of the one holds in check the radicalism 
of the other. 

The bench hands, bear in mind, must be men of ex- 
perience, with this quality more or less extended as the 
quality of the work may require. In cases where most 
of the work is machine work, the manufacturer will 
readily perceive that he can, with advantage to him- 
self, engage the services of a class of men whose 
knowledge is confined exclusively to the machine they 
pledge themselves to run. Migratory workmen are a 
curse to themselves and the manufacturer. They are 
the best examples of the saying: "A rolling stone 
gathers no moss." 

The close subdivision of work in our best manufac- 
tories is conducive to uniform and generally good re- 
sults, that is, that the tools and machines produced are 
of equable quality and uniform in build. 

The system that includes the individual workman 
only as the intelligent part of the machinery is admirable 
as making him an exact reproducing agent, and conse- 
quently aiding in uniform results ; but it is to be ques- 
tioned whether it is the best plan to make intelligent 
practical machines. It may be that possible excellence 
by it will be sacrificed to tolerable uniformity. Good 
mechanics of fifty-five years ago have little sympathy 
with a system that lowers the status of mechanical con- 
ditions to the level of the machine attendant, or the 
monotonous worker at a single branch. This system is 



12 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

not consonant with the freedom of individual endeavour 
that seems to be a part of the American mechanics' 
aspirations. 

After all the old-time job shop was about as reason- 
able a school as the embryo mechanic could desire. The 
foreman of one of the best known establishments in 
this country recently died. In conversation long ago 
he stated that his intimate knowledge of the different 
departments of the work was got from his experience 
in a "job shop," where he had a chance at everything, 
from the lathe to the carving room. He made his own 
drawings (sketches), and frequently made his own 
designs. These accomplishments may have been crude, 
but they gave him the idea of how a job should be done, 
as well as what was to be accomplished. He was an 
example of one sort of a practical mechanic, of which 
there should be more. 

Since the grand art movement, of which Victor 
Hugo's "Notre-Dame de Paris" was the most brilliant 
expression, the taste for art objects has gradually de- 
veloped with an intensity almost incredible. The stuffs, 
the china-ware, and above all the furniture of preced- 
ing centuries, are, now that they are old and battered, 
always sold for prices far higher, because of their 
excellence of construction and design. In this ten- 
dency it would be wrong to see nothing but a single 
fashion, a mania and an exaggeration, based upon fan- 
tasy and imitation; all the men of taste of one nation, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 13 

or, we might well say, of all great nations in the world, 
could not possibly be deceived to this extent, and with 
this unanimity of their fantasy, had it not a solid and 
serious basis. And this fashion for antique furniture 
does not rest upon a very reasonable and very logical 
foundation, — at first in its disdain for phantom furni- 
ture, which, through the perfecting of wood-working 
machines, has arrived at the last degrees of veneer, 
scarcely presenting the slightest degree of solidity, 
the mahogany, oak, walnut, and rose-wood with which 
they are coated cracking at the slightest shock, and peel- 
ing off at the least change in the dampness or dryness 
of the weather. All the world, too, knows equally well 
that the homely furniture of thirty years ago, Queen 
Anne and Eastlake, is equally inelegant in appearance, 
and uncomfortable in use. There is, then, in the desire 
of purchasing antique furniture, the just idea of pro- 
curing articles altogether solidly built, the form of 
which is always, if not absolutely conformable to the 
rules of art, at least entirely different from the veneer 
articles which, from their nature, can only be subject 
to very limited number of combinations, and can never 
furnish to the taste of architects and designers the 
same resources as solid wood. A longing to escape 
from the cold and monotonous furniture of the preced- 
ing generation added to the renaissance movement of 
the year of 1800, caused a greedy demand for antique 
furniture to suddenly arise ; but when all of those arti- 



14 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

cles which had remained sound and solid were sold off, 
it was necessary to repair, restore, and strengthen those 
articles which were only discovered in fragments. 

While the introduction of machinery had had much 
to do with changing the character and working methods 
of the cabinet maker, it has proved a great boon to 
humanity generally, and has given to the masses, a class 
of furniture they never could have enjoyed but for the 
cheaper productions by the aid of power, and machines, 
and in these remarks, I do not wish to give the impres- 
sion that machine made furniture is not good, or that 
it has not a beauty of its own, or that a majority of the 
designs are not graceful and well adapted to the days 
in which it was executed. In fact, I am of the belief 
that woodworking machinery has proved a blessing to 
both producer and user of cabinet work, while at the 
same time it has proved almost fatal to the distinctive 
and individual beauty of artistic handmade furniture. 

The object of the writer of this book, is to aid the 
young cabinet-maker — and the old one too — in obtain- 
ing a knowledge of the art from A to Z, and to enable 
him to take his material from the rough, and work it 
up until it reaches a finished state ready to take the 
place for which it was intended. I also purpose repro- 
ducing a number of designs of, what was generally 
considered to be some of the finest examples of furni- 
ture, from which the young workman and designer, 
may absorb inspiration and give to his work a charm 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 15 

and character to such work as he may undertake to 
execute, that can never be conveyed to articles made 
by the machine. 

It may be said, and with justice, that there is little 
or no demand for handmade art furniture, but I am 
persuaded this condition is occasioned because of the 
little of it there is jn the market, and the very high 
prices demanded for it by the owners. These high 
prices are placed on the articles, not by the maker, de- 
signer or workman, but by dealers, and the prices are 
often from four to five times the actual cost of the 
original work, and are only bought by rich people, 
whereas, if the prices were normal, the middle classes, 
whos'e taste is equal — and often superior — to that of 
the very rich, would indulge in handmade work to a 
very much larger extent than they now do. 

The bright sharp workman, of whom there are hun- 
dreds in our cabinet factories, who have been trained 
from the lumber yards to the running of the most deli- 
cate machinery in the shop, who by a little study, and 
a little practical work, may soon become able to make 
and finish furniture — by hand — of the finest sort, furni- 
ture too, that will find a ready market if the maker 
does his best. Many fine pieces of furniture have been 
made by advanced students after work-hours or dur- 
ing holidays. I have in mind at this writing, a splendid 
oak side-board, that was made in Newark, N. J., by 
a young man who was serving some years in a furniture 



16 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

shop, in that city, as an apprentice. The work was all 
done by hand, and in a shed in the rear of the house, 
polishing and all. The sideboard was intended for his 
father, but a wealthy neighbor of the latter, a man of 
taste, seeing the work before it was quite completed, 
offered to buy it, and thus, when finished was sold for 
the sum of $280.00. The materials, including mirrors, 
stained and leaded glass, hardware, and other stuff, 
all told, cost about $55.00. When it is considered, the 
work was done, nearly all after hours, between the 
fifteenth of October and the end of April, the amount 
was quite a comfortable addition to the young man's 
slender yearly salary. But the money gained, was 
but a fraction of the benefit he derived, as the ex- 
perience, and the knowledge obtained in making the 
furniture, were worth to him many times the money 
he received for it. 

Of course, I do not think every apprentice, or even 
a large percentage of them, could make such pieces 
of furniture, or find purchasers for them after they 
were made, but every apprentice or student could make 
something, that would be useful and ornamental, and 
have a cash value, besides opening a way for the cul- 
tivation of a broader and more exact artistic taste. 

Taste was the founder of all our styles in furniture 
from the prehistoric log stool all the way down through 
the Egyptian, Babylonian, Chinese, Greek, Roman, 
Medieval, Byzantine, French, Gothic and the more 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 17 

modern styles of Chipendale, Shereton, Adams, and 
our colonial styles, and it is essential that every cabinet- 
maker who aspires to know his business, should culti- 
vate taste, make himself conversant with the various 
styles, and be able at a glance to tell to what style, or 
on what lines any given piece of furniture is intended 
to represent. 

In this connection, I may say, it is proposed to lay 
before my readers a chapter or two on the various 
styles of furniture, with illustrations, explanations and 
some details. It is also intended to offer some instruc- 
tions for performing such work as gilding, staining, 
polishing, and finishing the work complete. 

There are but a few books of value, on the art of 
cabinet-making, available to the American reader, 
though in French, and German, and even in Italian, 
there are quite a number, but most of their renderings 
would be of little use to the English or American work- 
man, however, I will try and cull from them, whatever 
I deem suitable to these pages. The cullings from these 
works will consist mostly of illustrations, representing 
some of the best works of French, Italian, and German 
masters, with such explanations as may be necessary. 
The only American work, of a real practical nature, 
that I have any knowledge of is, first, Cabinet-maker's 
Companion, by J. Stokes, published by Henry Carey 
Baird, Philadelphia, Pa., 1870. This is an excellent 
little work and contains quite a number of good re- 



18 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

ceipts on dyeing, staining, and other useful matter. 
Another book, a still more modern one by Alvan 
Crocker Nye, Ph. B. and deals nearly altogether with 
the constructional principle of cabinet-making, but it 
has little to say regarding the styles or historical pecu- 
liarities of furniture. This book is published by Wm. 
Comstock, New York, and is dated 1900. Some other 
Manuals are very good in their way, but they are 
written chiefly for boys who have had little or no ex- 
perience in woodworking, and who may not intend 
making Cabinet-making a life work, are suited more 
for amateur workers rather than for those intending 
to follow woodworking for a living. These manuals 
however, will prove useful to every one who intends 
to work in wood, either professionally or a,s an am- 
ateur. 

There have been many essays on the art of furniture 
making, in our journals and art magazines, but these 
have generally been of an academic character, with a 
few exceptions, and have proved but of little service 
to the practical workman. 

A brief history of furniture and its growth, may not 
be out of place, though I do not purpose going into 
the subject at great length, so I will devote one illus- 
trated chapter only to it. 



FURNITURE HISTORY. 

The first well-known reference to woodwork is to 
be found in the Book of Genesis in the instructions 
given to Noah to make an Ark of "Gopher Wood," 
to make a window, to pitch it within and without with 
pitch, and to observe definite measurements. From the 
specific directions thus handed down to us we may 
gather that mankind had acquired at a very early 
period of the World's history a knowledge of the dif- 
ferent kinds of wood, and the use of the various tools. 

We know also, from the various bas-reliefs and 
papyri to be found in the World's museums, how ad- 
vanced were the Old Egyptians in the arts of civiliza- 
tion, and that the manufacture of comfortable and even 
luxurious furniture was well known. It is quite evident 
the Hebrews must have had the best of workmen for 
their teachers and taskmasters to have enabled them 
to acquire sufficient skill and experience to carry out 
such precise instructions as were given for the build- 
ing of the ark, and the erection of the Tabernacle, the 
latter of which was built some 1 500 years before Christ 
— as to the kinds of wood, measurements, ornaments, 
fastenings (loops and taches), curtains of linen, and 
coverings of dried skins. We have only to turn for 

19 



20 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

a moment to the 25th chapter of Exodus to be con- 
vinced that all the directions there mentioned were 
given to a people who had considerable experience in 
the methods of carrying out work, which must have 
resulted from some generations of cabinet-makers, car- 
penters, joiners, weavers, dyers, goldsmiths, and other 
craftsmen. 

A thousand years before Christ, we have those de- 
scriptions of the building and fitting by Solomon of 
the glorious work of his reign, the great temple, and 
of his own, "the King's house," which gathered from 
different countries the most skilful artificers of the time, 
an event which marks an era of advance in 'the knowl- 
edge and skill of those who were thus brought together 
to do their best work towards carrying out the grand 
scheme. It is worth while, too, when we are referring 
to Old Testament information bearing upon the sub- 
ject, to notice some details of furniture which are given, 
with their approximate dates as generally accepted, 
not because there is any particular importance attached 
to the precise chronology of the events concerned but 
because, speaking generally, they form landmarks in 
the history of furniture. One of these is the verse 
(2 Kings chap, lv) which tells us the contents of the 
"little chamber in the wall," when Elisha visited the 
Shunamite, about B. C. 895; and we are told of the 
preparations for the reception of the prophet: "And 
let us set for him there a bed and a table and a stool 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 21 

and a candlestick." Another incident is some 420 years 
later, when, in the allusion to the grandeur of the 
Palace of Ahasuerus, we catch a glimpse of Eastern 
magnificence in the description of the drapery which 
furnished the apartment: "Where were white, green, 
and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen 
and purple, to silver rings and pillars of marble: the 
beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red 
and blue and white and black marble." (Esther 1:6). 

There are, unfortunately, no trustworthy descriptions 
of ancient Hebrew furniture. The illustrations in 
Kitto's Bible, Mr. Henry Soltau's "The Tabernacle, 
The Priesthood and the Offerings," and other similar 
books, are apparently drawn from imagination, founded 
on descriptions in the Old Testament. In these, the 
"table for shew-bread" is generally represented as hav- 
ing legs partly turned, with the upper portions square, 
to which rings were attached for the poles by which 
it was carried. As a nomadic people, their furniture 
would be but primitive, and we may take it that as the 
Jews and Assyrians came from the same stock, and 
spoke the same language, such ornamental furniture 
as there was would, with the exception of the repre- 
sentations of figures of men or of animals, be of a 
similar character. At least this is what Litchfield says, 
and he is no mean authority. 

Doubtless prehistoric men made use of stones, logs, 
or piled-up sods, for seats, and for spots to rest their 



22 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

heads ; the use of stones for pillows being quite common 
as late as early historic times. Be this as it may how- 
ever, we find, the Egyptians had chairs, beds, tables 
and other furniture, some of which was highly wrought 
and ornamented, at least 4000 years before Christ, as 
shown by the monuments, and by the papyri that have 
come down to us. We also possess some fragments of 
bronze furniture of both Egyptian and Assyrian make. 

The British Museum and the Louvre contain a few 
Egyptian chairs or seats that have been made in ebony 
and ivory, which owe their preservation to the lasting 
nature of the material. 

Two Egyptian chairs or thrones are illustrated at 
Figs. 1 and 2, in the first part of this work. At Fig. 
3, cabinet-makers are represented as occupied in chair 
making, the feet and legs of the chairs being designed 
from animals' limbs, and the stools on which the work- 
men are sitting are blocks of wood hollowed out at the 
top. The Egyptian couch was of a straight-lined de- 
sign in the body with a curved head like an ordinary 
sofa, the legs, feet and other salient points being carved 
with heads, feet and tails of animals. 

Some boxes and coffers with gable tops dovetailed 
together, small toilet boxes having carved or painted 
decoration, and Mummy cases of cedar-wood having 
elaborate hieroglyphic decorations, may be seen in the 
British Museum and in the Louvre. Chariot and horse 
furniture are well represented in the reliefs and wall 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



23 



paintings. Egypt was famed for chariot building, and 
exported them in trade to the surrounding nations. 
We read that King Solomon imported his war-chariots 
from Egypt. 





Figure 1 



Figure 2 



If examples of Egyptian furniture are scarce, the 
furniture of Assyria is practically non-existent, as the 
climate of the latter country was not so dry or pre- 
servative as that of Egypt, so that all examples that- 
have not been wilfully destroyed have long ago perished. 
Many ornaments of bronze and of ivory decorations 
have been discovered that have been used as mountings 
to feet, ends of legs of seats, chairs, or thrones. The 



24 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



bas-reliefs of the latter enables us to form a fairly ac- 
curate judgment of the nature and style of Assyrian 
furniture, the decoration of which was of a heavier and 
coarser character than that of the more elegant 
Egyptian ( Fig. 4 and 5 ) . Forms and parts of animals 




Figure 3 



were used by the Assyrians and nearly all Oriental 
nations as furniture decorations. The human figure 
was also used, but generally in the representation of 
slaves or conquered peoples, who were degraded to the 
position of bearing the weight of the seat or throne of 
the monarch. The Egyptian chairs had also carved 
human figures as captives tied under the seat. 

The furniture of the Hebrews was doubtless of the 
same kind as the Assyrian. From the description of 
King Solomon's throne it was apparently similar to 
those of the Assyrian kings. It had lions for the arm 
supports, and had six lions in gold and ivory on the 
six steps on either side of the throne. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



25 



In the manufacture of the furniture of the nations 
of antiquity the principal materials were — in woods, 
ebony, rosewood, walnut, pine, teak, and, above all, 
cedar- wood; ivory, gold, silver, bronze, and electrum 
were also much used for inlays and for solid mountings. 

The furniture and the 
chariots of the Greeks in 
their early period were 
simply copied from Egyp- 
tian and Asiatic sources, 
with less of the animal 
forms and more of plant 
forms as decorative de- 
tails (Figs. 6, 7). Folding 
stools and chairs were 
made in wood and in metal 
and the backs of the chairs 
Fl ^ re 4 were upright, or nearly so 

(Figs. 8, 9 and 10) ; couches resembling modern sofas, 
elaborate foot-stools, and arm-chairs with the sphinxes 
for the arms were made by the Greeks. 

In the British Museum are some small models of 
Greek chairs made in lead, and wooden boxes showing 
the dovetail construction. 

In the later Greek periods the furniture was inlaid 
with ivory, ebony, gold, and silver. Tripods were made 
of bronze, and had ornamented legs in the shapes of 
the limbs of lions, leopards, and sphinxes. The Roman 
bronze tripods were very similar to the Grecian ones 




26 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



in design, and were not only used for sacred purposes 
in the temples, but also to support braziers for heating 
purposes, or for burning perfumes in the houses of 
private people (Fig. 10). 

Hand-mirrors and cistae were made in great quan- 
tities in bronze or in other metal alloys, in silver, and 





Figure 6 



Figure 5 



sometimes in gold. The mirrors were polished on the 
face, and had often rich designs of figure subjects. The 
Greek cistae were cylindrical metal boxes that rested 
on feet designed from those of various animals, having 
a lid or cover, with a handle or knot usually of figure 
design, the whole surface of the body being covered 
with engraved figure compositions and ornamental 
borders. They were probably used to contain jewelry 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 2i 

and trinkets. Some very fine specimens of these hand- 
mirrors and cistae may be seen in the British Museum. 




Figure 7 



The furnishing of the houses of the Romans was 
very much of the same character as that of the Greeks 




Figure 10 

and Etruscans, from whom the Romans inherited all 
their arts. 

The interior plan and aspects of the Roman houses 
were such as those of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
Tables and tripods of bronze or braziers were supported 



28 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



on three legs, some of which were made with hinges 
for folding purposes (Fig. n), and others were of 
sphinx and animal forms of a rich design (Fig. 12). 
Lamp-stand designs were quaint and elegant and were 





Figure 11 



Figure 12 



made in bronze (Fig. 13). Candelabra of architectural 
design were carved in marble and were from six to ten 
feet in height (Fig. 15). 

The Romans highly prized and paid good sums for 
tables that were made from the pollard cross grain of 
different hard woods in which the knots and grain 
showed to advantage, the beauty of the wood being 
brought out by hand-polishing and by the staining it 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



29 



with various colored dyes. Bird's eye maple and the 
wood of the cedrus atlantica were much prized. The 
smaller tables, abaci, rested usually on one foot- — 
monopodium — and larger tables had three or four legs, 




Figure 13 



which had ivory claws or heads of animals as carved 
decoration (Fig. 14). Boxwood, beech, and palm, in- 
laid with ivory, ebony, and precious metals, were used 
in the materials of chairs and couches. The latter were 
often made in bronze (Figs. 15 and 16), and chairs of 
state were carved in marble, one of this kind being in 
the Louvre, a cast of which is now in the Kensington 
Museum (Fig. 17). The form of the Roman curule 
chair was like the letter X, and was so called because it 



30 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



could be folded and carried easily in the curules or 
chariots. It was used from the earliest times of the 
Romans down to modern days in Italy, and was often 
constructed of elephants' tusks, wood, or metal, with 
ivory feet. The curule chairs were carried about for 
outdoor use and for the theatre. The sella or bisellium. 




Figure 14 

to seat two persons, was often a very ornate kind of 
seat with turned legs similar to the couches (Fig. 18). 

In the houses of the Romans a separate room or 
wardrobe was fitted up to keep the dresses and cloths 
of the family ; this room had cupboards with doors and 
shelves, drawers, and lockers. 

Portable coffers and chests were used, in which they 
packed their cloths and valuables when carrying them 
to and from their town and country houses. The 
Roman furniture and wooden construction of their 
houses were decorated with paintings and carvings of 
animals' heads, limbs, and feet, and with the usual 
architectural acanthus foliage — veneering of woods was 
an art in which the Romans were skilled; both large 
and small design in Tazsia work were the chief decora- 
tions of the best furniture. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



31 



The representations we have of what was used by 
the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, are those 
only of the most finished and tasteful specimens; and, 
consequently, materials do not exist for the formation 
of a chronological series. But if we examine such as 
are of subsequent date in Europe, the reply will be found 
amply to repay the trouble. 




In endeavoring to obtain some little insight into the 
forms and materials of the furniture of ancient times, 
we are dependent on different sources, according to the 
country under consideration. If it be ancient Rome or 
Greece, the descriptions by the classical writers and 
the paintings at Pompeii are our chief authorities; if 
ancient Egypt, the paintings on the walls at Thebes 
and other places ; if in China or India, or Asia general- 
ly, the specimens still existing, for the Asiatics are 
more stationary in their usages than the inhabitants of 
any other quarter of the globe. Footstools seemed to 
have formed part of the furniture of a sitting-room; 



32 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



they were made both solid and open at the sides, and 
were covered at the top with leather or interlaced 
string. 

The distinction between a 
bed and a couch does not seem 
to have been very clearly 
marked. They had couches of 
wood with one end raised and 
receding in a graceful curve, 
with feet fashioned to resemble 
those of some wild animal. It 
is supposed that those couches 
had a rich covering by day and 
bedding by night. The use of 
wooden pillows was customary ; 
they were made of various ma- 
terials, according to the rank 
of the possessor, and had a sin- 
gular kind of cavity in which 
the head or the back of the neck 
might rest. Wicker bedsteads 
were sometimes made of palm- 
branches, forming a light kind 
of grating on which the bed 
and bedding were placed. The 
tables used were of various 
forms — round, square and ob- 




Figure 16 



long. 



At repasts the dining-table was generally circu- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 33 

lar, and supported by a central pillar, which was often 
the figure of a man as a captive. Other tables had 
three or four legs, and the material of the tables 
themselves, though generally wood, was sometimes 
metal or stone. 

It is curious to remark that Egypt exhibited, three 
or four thousand years ago, articles of furniture bear- 
ing a much closer resemblance to those of modern 
Europe than Egypt does at the present day. The chairs 
of the early times might in many cases be readily mis- 
taken for those now in use among ourselves; whereas 
the divans and cushions of modern Egypt, on which the 
natives indolently recline, belong to the oriental system 
of furniture. In Cairo no chambers are furnished as 
bed-rooms. The bed, in the day-time, is rolled up and 
placed on one side, or in an adjoining closet, which is 
a sleeping-place in the winter. In summer many per- 
sons sleep upon the house-tops. The furniture of a 
room is comprised pretty nearly by the mat or carpet 
spread upon the floor, and the divans or cushioned 
couches. For meals a round tray is brought in and 
placed upon a low stool, and the company sit round 
it on the ground. There is no fire-place, the room being 
warmed when necessary by charcoal burning in a 
chafing-dish. 

Passing from Egypt to China, we find, in treating 
of the furniture of a room, as in many other matters, 
how singularly isolated the Chinese are from the other 



34 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




nations of Asia, and how much more closely they re- 
semble Europeans. The Chinese are the only Asiatic 

people who customarily use 
chairs; they resemble the 
solid and heavy chairs in 
fashion during the early part 
of the 1 8th century; (see il- 
lustration of Chinese chair). 
The seat of the chair has oft- 
en a cushion, and the back 
a hanging of scarlet silk or 
woolen embroidered with 
silk. In the forms of their 
Figure 17 furniture the Chinese gen- 

erally avoid straight and uniform lines; even in their 
doorways, instead of a regular right-angled opening, 
they often have one presenting the form of a circle, 
or an oval, or a leaf, or a jar. These fanciful door- 
ways, however, are only used when there are no doors, 
the opening being covered with hanging screens of silk 
or cloth, or with bamboo blinds, like those used in 
India. The Chinese beds are generally simple in form, 
with cotton or silk curtains in winter, and a fine mos- 
quito-screen during the heat of summer; the bed of an 
individual among the middle classes usually consists 
of two or three boards laid upon a couple of narrow 
benches, a mat to lie upon, and four bamboo-sticks to 
support the mosquito-curtains. It may readily be sup- 




THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 35 

posed that in the original country of porcelain a very 
usual ornament of dwellings consists in vases and jars 
of that material, of which the antiquity is valued above 

every other quality. This 
taste has led to the manu- 
facture of fictitious an- 
tiques, not only in porce- 
lain, but in bronze and 
other substances — points 
in which strangers are 
lgure often very egregiously 

taken in at Canton. The shapes of their tripods and 
other ancient vessels, real or imitated, are often fan- 
tastical, and not unlike similar vestiges in Europe. 

The furniture, such as tables, chairs, beds, and the 
chariots of the Byzantine period, was like the archi- 
tecture in having something of the classic Roman mix- 
ture with some Asiatic Greek forms in its design. 
Scarcely any remains of such are now in existence, 
although we have evidences of the extreme richness 
of the sumptuary furniture and vessels of the great 
houses and palaces of Constantinople, for owing to the 
decadence and destruction of the Roman empire in the 
provinces, the capital of the East became enriched by 
treasures of the Roman families, who naturally fled to 
Constantinople for protection for themselves and their 
valuable effects. 

The old ivories known as consular diptychs have 



36 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

different varieties of seats, chairs, and footstools, on 
which the consuls are seated, represented in the carving. 
Many originals of these and casts from others, are now 
in the Kensington Museum, London. 




Figure 19 

The chair of St. Maximian, preserved at Ravenna, 
is covered with ivory carvings, and is one of the finest 
examples of Byzantine work. 

Much of the furniture of the early centuries of Chris- 
tian art is represented in the Byzantine illuminated 
manuscripts. Beds and couches kept the old Roman 
forms with the turned legs. Chariots must have been 
used very much, as the old game of chariot racing was 
kept up by the Byzantines. The Iconoclasts of the 
Eastern Empire under Leo the Isaurian (A. D. 726) — 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



37 



whose injurious rule lasted about one hundred and 
twenty years — were responsible for much destruction 




Figure 20 



of sumptuary furniture, as well as for other productions 
of an artistic nature, but at the same time they were 
the indirect means of causing a new development in art 
in the western parts of Europe, and more particularly in 



38 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the Rhenish Provinces, by driving the Byzantine artists 
and craftsmen to these places, where they were wel- 
comed by Charlemagne, and by his powerful nobles and 
churchmen. In the course of time they succeeded in 
founding the school of art known as Rhenish-Byzan- 
tine. The finest illustrations of this art are seen in the 
magnificent enamelled reliquaries or shrines. The gilt- 
bronze chair of Dagobert is of Romanesque design, and 
is one of the earliest pieces of furniture of the Middle 
Ages (see Fig. 19). Another mediaeval chair or 
throne is high seated, and exceedingly rich in design 
(Fig. 20). It is of Scandinavian origin, and is a good 
example of the Romanesque style of Northern Europe. 
Many forms of the Romanesque are seen in the furni- 
ture and carving of the Gothic style that immediately 
succeeded the former. 

During the Anglo-Saxon period in England the or- 
dinary houses usually consisted of one room. Some- 
times a shed-like structure was erected against the wall 
of the room to contain the bed of the mistress of the 
house, and as a rule the inmates slept on a large table 
placed in the center of the room, or on benches on which 
bags of straw were placed. Seats without backs, or 
stools, long settles or benches with backs and carved 
ends or arms, were the chief articles in furniture. 

After the Norman Conquest domestic improvements 
were multiplied, more rooms were added to the houses, 
such as the solar or upper room, and the parlor or 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



39 



talking room, and some of the rooms had fireplaces, but 
not chimneys. The principal room was the hall or 
assembly-room, which had a fireplace in the center, the 
smoke escaping through the lantern light in the roof. 
In the Norman times the principal additions to the 
furniture of English manor-houses and castles were the 
cupboard, presses or armoires, and chests. These pieces 





Figure 21 



Figure 22 



of furniture were introduced from France. Sometimes 
the portable presses and the chests were painted with 
tempera decorations, and were bound with wrought- 
iron clasps and hinges, which were just beginning to 
come into use. 

The bed-clothes and personal clothing of the nobles 
and rich landowners began to assume a rich character, 
and were often embroidered. 

Tapestry and painted cloth hangings were imported ; 
also pottery of an ornamental description was not only 
imported, but made in England at this time. All this 



40 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




applies to the homes of the rich only, for the poorer 
classes remained for a long period in a very primitive 
condition as regards their style of houses and their 
furniture. 

The construction of furniture and the panelling of 
chests began to exhibit some workmanlike appearances 
of good carpentry. Panels were 
placed in framework that was mor- 
tised and fastened with wooden 
pegs, which became the universal 
method of panelling throughout the 
Gothic period. Room paneling 
came into use in England in the 
early part of the thirteenth century, 
Figure 23 when pine timber was used at first 

for this work, but was displaced later by the more sub- 
stantial oak. This oak panelling during the Gothic 
periods was often carved with elaborate tracery of an 
architectural character (Figs. 21, 22), and a common 
design was a carved imitation of a carefully folded 
textile, known as the "linen panel" (Fig. 23). 

Chests were used as tables, and the tops had inlaid 
checkers to be used as chessboards. They were also 
used as sideboards on which to place dishes of food, 
the dining-table being a board which was placed on 
trestles, that could be removed and packed away when 
not required (Figs. 24, 25). A crossed-legged chair 
and a three-legged stool is shown at Fig. 2j, which 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



41 



were common shapes in the fourteenth century. The 
illustration, Fig. 26, is that of a bedroom of the same 








Figure 24 



period, and is taken from an English manuscript of the 
date of 1400. For these illustrations, and many others 




Figure 25 

on the subject of furniture, we are indebted to the work 
of Mr. J. H. Pollen on "Furniture and Woodwork." 



42 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



The bed in the latter illustration has a flat canopy, or 
tester, with embroidered hangings. The walls of the 
room are panelled, and the floor is in checkered par- 




Figure 26 



quetry. There is a curious seat that is partly an open 
press, with pottery, and metal vases placed as decora- 
tion on the top. 

Chests, trunks, or bahuts, were at this period, and 
in the time of the Normans, the most important articles 
in furniture; they were often made with inlaid wood 
decorations, and had strapwork of iron and ornate 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



43 



hinges. They were the usual repositories of the house- 
hold valuables, money, and other treasures, and were 
carried on horses or mules when the family moved 
about from place to place. By degrees the chest, with 
the addition of a back and arms, became the settles 
or principal seats in the living-room, and the back de- 
veloped with an added hood or projecting covering into 




Figure 27 



the dais, or throne-like seat, that was placed at the 
end of the chief room — the place of honor. 

Another and later development of the chest was to 
raise it on legs, and to add a back arrangement to it, 
with shelves for the display of household plate, to 
which was given the name of dressoir, or dresser, the 
latter in time developing into the modern sideboard. 

Chests were also important articles of church furni- 
ture, in which the sacred vessels, treasures, books, and 
priests' garments couljd be locked up, and a particular 



44 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



form of chest kept in church vestries was the cope chest, 
which took the semicircular shape of the copes when 
laid out flat in these chests. Examples of these chests 
are still to be seen in some of the larger cathedrals. 

The coronation chair (Fig. 28) gives a good idea 
of a state chair of the early Gothic period in England. 

Carriages of the fourteenth 
century were used for the 
conveyance of women and 
children, but were not very 
common. They were long- 
shaped covered vehicles on 
four wheels, with or without 
paneled sides, and were paint- 
ed and decorated (Figs. 29, 
30). Carts for carrying and 
for agricultural purposes 
were used in the Anglo-Sax- 
on and Norman periods in 
England, and in France at 
the same dates; these were 
two- wheeled vehicles, each being usually of one solid 
piece of wood. 

The Saracens were very ingenious in the using of 
wood, as in carpentry, carving, and turning in the lathe. 
Their ingenuity and skill in carpentry and turning is 
seen in the Meshrebiya work and lattice, and in the 
carvings of the pulpit and door panels. 




Figure 28 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



45 



Regarding the furniture of the domestic dwellings of 
the Saracens, whether of Egypt, Arabia, or elsewhere, 
there was very little of a movable nature except the 
small tables and reading-desks. The tables of Saracenic 
design are usually small and of a greater height than 
width ( Fig. 31). These tables or kursys are sometimes 
panelled with turned, latticed, or carved decoration, 
having stalactites under the top, as in the illustration, 




Figure 29 



or in the kursys of a lighter construction are generally 
inlaid with ivory, ebony, and mother-of-pearl. Some 
of the richest variety are hexagonal in shape, are inlaid 
with brass and silver filigree ornamentation, and are 
of splendid workmanship. The next important article 
in movable furniture is the Saracen reading-desk, which 
is made in the form of a camp-stool, with cross legs. 
It is usually inlaid and decorated like the tables. 

The divans are platforms raised slightly from the 
ground, and covered with cushions on the seats and 
backs. The carved cupboards or shelves on brackets 



46 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



placed behind and above the divans, on which vases 
and trays are kept for ornament or when not in use, 
complete the usual furniture. of the Saracenic living- 
room. Seats or chairs or lattice-work (dikkas), on 




which the doorkeeper sits, are usually found in en- 
trance-halls, and if we add the elaborate metal and 
colored-glass lamps, the vases, the large metal salvers 
or trays, and the rugs and carpets, the furniture of a 
Saracenic house is complete. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



47 




Figure 31 



ITALIAN AND OTHER FURNITURE OF THE 
RENAISSANCE. 

In the early part of the fifteenth century and during 
the whole of the century the furniture of Europe gen- 
erally was designed more or less on Gothic lines, but 
gradually the new forms that were now rapidly de- 
veloping in the architecture of the Renaissance, but in 
a slower measure, began to assert themselves in furni- 
ture designs. Consequently, we find in many articles, 
such as armoires or presses, and cabinets, a mixture of 
style in the design — as, for instance, the upper panels 
would be in the Mediaeval, and the lower ones in the 
Renaissance style, or the general construction would be 
Gothic, and the details and decoration would be Italian. 

This was more often the case in the furniture and 
other art in Germany, where the Renaissance was 
tardily welcomed. 

Styles of design in furniture overlap each other so 
much, especially in the Renaissance period, that it be- 
came very difficult to assign a correct date to many 
pieces of important work. Gothic designs continued to 
be used during the sixteenth century, although the 
Renaissance had been developing for a hundred years 

48 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 49 

earlier. The most authentic means of fixing the date 
is when certain work can be proved to have come from 
the hand of a particular artist, or when there is a record 
of its having been made for a king or some great 
person, for the style is not always a sure proof of the 
correct date. 

In the "Quattrocento" period (1400-1500), or 
fifteenth century, Italian furniture made for churches, 
palaces, or private houses, was usually decorated with 
paintings, sometimes on a gilt ground, which was pre- 
pared in a gesso material before the gold was applied, 
some parts of which had relief ornamentation. 

Reliquaries, altar-fronts, panels or cabinets, chests, 
and marriage coffers were decorated in this way. 

The work known as "tarsia," or certosina work, was 
made in great perfection about this time in Italy. It is 
inlaid work of a geometric character in design, or is 
composed of floral ornament, and sometimes consists 
of representations of landscapes and buildings. This 
kind of inlay derived from Persian sources, was de- 
veloped chiefly by the Venetians, and was used mostly 
by them in the decoration of their stalls, tables, chairs, 
cabinets, &c. Ebony, ivory, and metals were also em- 
ployed in the Italian inlays of this period. 

The Italian cassoni, or marriage coffers, were the 
most ornate and most imposing articles of furniture of 
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They were placed 
in the long halls and corridors of the palaces and great 



50 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



houses, and were usually given as presents to newly 
married couples. They were generally used as the re- 
ceptacle for the bride's trousseau and other treasures. 
In the latter century they were carved in walnut with 
sculptural mythological subjects, and had endings or 
corners of half-figures and half-foliage, as caryatids, 




WFmwm 



Figure 32 



with feet designed from the claws of animals to raise 
them from the ground (Fig. 32). The carving was 
relieved by gilding in parts, and sometimes the whole 
of it was gilt. 

Other examples of an earlier date were covered with 
a finely modelled decoration of gesso work, and gilded, 
and in other cases the large panels in the front were 
painted with figure subjects in brilliant colors and 
heightened with gold. 

A less costly kind of marriage coffer was made in 
cypress-wood, and fitted up in the inside with drawers, 
having the decoration on the surface engraved or etched 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



51 




Figure 33 



Figure 34 



52 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

in brown lines, with the ground slightly recessed and 
punched or stamped with a fine ornamentation. 

In the Kensington Museum there is an extensive 
collection of Italian cassoni embracing all the above 
varieties. Chairs carved and gilt of the same style and 
period as the coffers were usually placed between the 
rows of the latter in the halls of the Italian palaces 
(Fig. 33). These chairs had their backs and legs rich- 
ly carved, each part being made out of a single slab 
of wood. 

The pair of bellows (Fig. 34) is a further illustra- 
tion of the design and excellence of workmanship as 
shown in the work of the wood carvers of Italy in the 
sixteenth century, or "Cinquecento" period. 

Another fine specimen of wood carving is the Italian 
stool (Fig. 35) of the same date, which is remarkable 
for its delicacy of treatment. 

Another form of chair of a rectangular character, 
with or without arms, having an embossed leather or 
velvet covering on the back and seat, with turned and 
carved legs and rails, was made in Italy about this time 
(Fig. 36) ; it was much used subsequently in Spain, 
France, and in England, and has continued to be in 
favor down to the present day. 

Cabinets were made in Italy and in France in which 
slabs of beautifully colored and veined marbles and 
rare stones were inserted as panels in various shapes, 
to which the name of "pietradura" work was given. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 53 

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries painted 
plaques of porcelain took the place of these marbles. 




Figure 35 

In England, France, Spain, and Germany, the great 
houses, both private and religious, and the king's 
palaces were elaborately furnished, and kept in a state 
of great splendor. 



54 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



Figure 36 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 55 

Churches were also furnished with elaborate stalls, 
pulpits, and rich utensils, but in the latter the style of 
the designs was still Mediaeval. 

In the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. in 
England the style gradually altered to the Italian forms 
of the Renaissance, and great quantities of Italian, 
Flemish, and French furniture were largely imported. 
Jean de Mabuse and Torrigiano were employed as 
architects and sculptors by Henry VII. , and Holbein 
and some Italian artists designed furniture and gold- 
smith's work for Henry VIII. 

In France, during the reigns of Francois I., Catherine 
de Medici, and Henry II., a great activity took place 
in architecture and in all the industrial arts, in which 
that country was not only imitated, but sought to excel, 
the work of the Italian schools. 

As already mentioned, the French kings and 
Medicean princesses in the sixteenth century had in- 
vited from Italy Cellini, Primaticcio, II Rosso, Serlio, 
and others, who succeeded in founding the style of 
the Renaissance in France, and about the same time 
many French artists journeyed to Italy to acquire the 
newer style which had been evolved from the study of 
the old classic remains of that country. Among the 
names of the principal French artists, sculptors, and 
carvers of this period are those of Jean Goujon, 
Nicholas Bachelier of Toulouse, Jean Cousin, Germain 
Pilon, Philibert de L'Orme, Du Cerceau, who published 



56 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 37 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



57 



designs for all kinds of decorations and carvings, and 
Hugues Sambin of Dijon. Most of these men were 

architects and also 
designers of the 
heavy and rich fur- 
niture that was 
characteristic of the 
French Renais- 
sance. Some of 
these artists and 
their works have 
been noticed in the 
chapters on Renais- 
sance architecture 
and metal work. 
The cabinet (Fig. 
37) is a good ex- 
ample of the archi- 
tecturic style of 
French furniture of 
the sixteenth cen- 
tury. French wood 
carving is distin- 
guished from the 




Figure 38 



Italian of this period by the great use of the cartouche 
and strap-work (Fig. 38), which was so characteristic 
of the Henri-Deux style. 



58 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

When the Renaissance had taken a firm root in Ger- 
many, the designers and carvers of altar-pieces and of 
furniture generally proved themselves thorough masters 
of the style, and were especially skilful in the carving 
of wood, both on a gigantic and on a minute scale. 
Whole fronts of houses were elaborately carved in de- 
signs consisting of figure work, animals, ornament, 
and grotesques of a quaint and humorous description, 
while exceedingly minute works of figure subjects and 
animals were carved in box and other woods with a 
delicacy and quaintness often excelling the ivory carv- 
ings of the Japanese. Escritoires, buffets, cabinets, 
and other furniture, were made and exported from 
Germany into Spain and other countries. 

Flemish and English furniture and carving were 
pretty much alike in the reigns of Elizabeth — the Tudor 
period of English art — and of James L, the Stuart of 
Jacobean. The pieces of carved furniture, both Flemish 
and English, were very solid and heavy both in the 
design and thickness of material, which was generally 
of oak or chestnut. So much Flemish furniture was 
imported into England at this time, and the English- 
made work, being so close in resemblance to the former, 
that a great difficulty is experienced in classifying ex- 
amples of this period. The table, Fig. 39, and the so- 
called "Great Bed of Ware," are examples of the 
furniture of the Elizabethan period (Fig. 40). 

In Spain the Italian style in furniture was intro- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



59 



duced in the first instance by the great importations 
from Italy and Germany, but under such excellent na- 
tive carvers and designers as Felipe de Borgona (six- 




Figure 39 



teenth century), and Berruguete (i 480-1 561), the 
style of the Renaissance soon spread from Toledo to 
Seville and Valladolid, where great quantities of carved 
and inlaid work and elaborate altar-pieces were ex- 
ecuted during the prosperous Spanish period of the 
sixteenth century. 

During the same century Venice and Florence were 
famed for their marquetry — inlaid work of ivory and 
metal — in cypres s, walnut, and other woods, which art 



60 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

had been imported from Persia and India by the 
Venetians, and which spread rapidly through Europe 
until the furniture made with marquetry decoration by 
degrees supplanted the heavier classical architectural 
designs. 




Figure 40 

Before leaving the Italian sixteenth-century work we 
must notice the mirrors, with their elaborately carved 
frames of Venetian design and manufacture. In this 
century Venice was renowned for the making of glass, 
for which it is still famous, and certain privileges were 
granted by the State exclusively to Venetian manu- 
facturers of looking-glasses. Two Murano glass 
makers named Andrea and Dominico, who were the 
inventors, were granted in the year 1507 the sole 
privilege of making "mirrors of crystal glass" for a 
term of twenty years. Previous to this time the mirrors 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 61 

were made of various polished metals. The frames of 
the Venetian mirrors were often elaborately carved 
(Fig. 41), some of them being made in designs that 
were strictly architectural in character, representing a 
door, or window frame, with pilasters frieze, and cor- 
nice and sill or plinth. These carved frames were often 
part or wholly gilt, and were exported in considerable 
quantities. Pictures were framed in a similar way to 
the mirrors, and carved and gilt frames were soon used 
all over Europe as picture frames. Later on gilt furni- 
ture of all kinds was made in Venice and was in great 
favor in the other countries of the Continent. 

The manufacture of marquetry furniture by the 
Dutch in the seventeenth century has been mentioned 
as having helped in a great measure to change the style 
of furniture design from its former architectural char- 
acter to a greater simplicity of construction. Large 
panel surfaces were used for the purpose of showing 
to greater advantage the rich and bright colors of dif- 
ferent kinds of hard woods used in the marquetry. 
Both natural and stained varieties of various wood 
were arranged in the designs in juxta-position, and a 
free and picturesque kind of ornamental foliage was 
employed mixed with large tulips, roses, and birds 
in the Dutch marquetry decoration. Other materials 
such as ivory, ebony, and mother-of-pearl, were also 
used as inlays. In France a similar kind of marquetry 



62 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




L'ART NOUVEAU 




MISSION 



was developed, but the design con- 
sisted more of figure subjects and 
imitations of ruins in landscapes. A 
complete change in the design of the 
furniture in the latter country was 
also effected by the same desire to 
get large surface on which the inlaid 
work could be seen to great ad- 
vantage, and the spaces were not 
divided by architectural mouldings, 
and the pilasters, as they had been in 
the preceding earlier work. 
Towards the end of the sixteenth century, and dur- 
ing the earlier half of the seventeenth, the sumptuous 
furniture, the beds, and general furnishing of the better 
class of houses and palaces in France and other Euro- 
pean countries, were characterized by the use of costly 
silk brocades, tissues, and embroidered coverings and 
hangings. 

By thus seeking to give the furniture an appearance 
of the richest possible kind, such articles as chairs, 
couches, and beds lost in a corresponding degree their 
elegance and former constructive beauty. Under their 
gorgeous Italian and Oriental velvet coverings, their 
framed construction ceased to be visible. The above 
pieces of furniture still retained their sumptuous up- 
holstery during the reign of Louis XIV., but the tables, 
armoires. cabinets, book-cases, pedestals, clock-stands 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



63 



and cases, came under the influence of the architecture 
of the period, when the king's chief minister, Colbert, 
selected the best architects and cabinet-makers of the 
day to design the furniture for the palaces of the 
Tuileries, the Louvre, and Fontainebleau. 

The greatest name connected with the design and 
manufacture of the magnificent furniture of the Louis- 




An Old Italian Table 



Quatorze period is that of Andre-Charles Boulle, whose 
work is known under his name as "Boulle." This cele- 
brated furniture is an elaborate kind of marquetry of 
which the materials are rare woods, ebony, tortoise- 
shell, brass, mother-of-pearl, and white metal or tin. 
The mountings, mouldings, and other salient points are 
made in brass beautifully chased and finished, some of 
the mouldings being in the forms of masks, foliages, 
cartouches, and animals' heads and feet as termination. 
- Andre-Charles Boulle was born in Paris in the year 



64 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

1642. His father, Pierre Boulle was also a distin- 
guished ebeniste, or cabinet-maker, but his more 
eminent son possessed the artistic gift in a much higher 
degree. In addition to making his special marquetry 
from his own designs Boulle also executed a good deal 
of his best works from the design of Jean Berain ( 1636- 
171 1 ), his chief collaborateur. Berain's designs were 
more Italian in style, more symmetrical in the com- 
position of the ornament, and more correct from an 
architectural point of view, than those attributed to 
Boulle himself, whose designs had much of the loose- 
ness and freedom of the prevalent Louis Ouatorze. 

At the death of Jean Mace, the king's ebeniste, in 
1672, who had formerly lived in the royal galleries of 
the Louvre, the logement and office of ebeniste to the 
king had become vacant, and Boulle on the recom- 
mendation of Colbert, minister to Louis XIV., was 
appointed as the successor of Mace, and was installed 
in his rooms in the Louvre in the year 1673. He na< ^ 
previously executed some important work for the king, 
and was known as the ablest ebeniste at that time in 
Paris. 

The origin of the Boulle marquetry can be traced to 
the Indian, Persian, and Damascus encrusted inlays 
in ivory, ebony, and metal, that found their way to 
Venice, Portugal, Spain, and France in the Middle 
Ages. These works consisted chiefly of caskets, coffers, 
and small pieces of furniture In the inventories of 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



65 




Figure 41 



66 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

Charles V. of France (1380) mention is made of lec- 
terns and coffers of inlaid ivory or bone, in ebony, 
and similar works are mentioned in the inventories of 
Charles VI. (1418), and of Anne of Brittany (1498). 
These are the earliest notices of marquetry furniture 
that was made in France, and was probably an imita- 
tion of Oriental work. 

In the Renaissance period Francois I. bought some 
magnificent furniture of Indian workmanship, inlaid 
with mother-of-pearl, from Portuguese merchants, and 
mention is made of chairs, tables, coffers, cabinets, and 
mirror-frames that belonged to Queen Marie de Medicis 
(1600), the Cardinal d'Amboise (1500), and other 
great persons of the French Court, all of which works 
were made in marquetry. 

In France before the sixteenth century, tortoise- 
shell, brass, tin, and exotic woods were used as inlays, 
in addition to the ivory, ebony, and nacre of the East. 
From this it will be seen that Boulle did not invent the 
celebrated marquetry that bears his name. He, how- 
ever, brought this sumptuous form of cabinet work to 
great perfection, and under the patronage of Louis 
XIV. he had every opportunity to develop his artistic 
abilities to the utmost. 

The method of procedure in the making of the 
Boulle marquetry was, first, to prepare the veneers of 
wood, shell, tin, and brass of the same thickness, each 
having perfectly plain surfaces; these veneers were 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



67 



then glued together in pairs of opposite materials, ac- 
cording to the nature of the effect required in the 




m^^^^^^^M^^W^^WTM 




Figure 42 



finished work, and were held together firmly in a vice. 
The design was then traced on the surface of the upper 
leaf, and the veneers were then cut through the lines of 



68 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the pattern with a burin, a sharp strong knife, or a 
fine saw; thus four pieces of marquetry were made at 
one cutting. When the plaque forming the design was 
composed of tin or brass, which was afterwards en- 
graved or chased, it was technically called "boulle" ; 
and when the design was formed by the shell or ebony 
it was called "counter"; the two effects are together 
known as "boulle and counter" or premiere et contre- 
partie. 

A later kind of Boulle work, known as the Second 
Style, has the shell veneers laid on a clouded vermilion 
or on a gilt ground. 

Boulle was an artist of great excellence as a sculptor 
and chaser of metals; his mountings of foliage and 
masks which decorated his works are spirited in design 
and are skilfully chased and finished (Fig. 42). He 
executed a great number of costly pieces of his famous 
marquetry for Louis XIV. and the Dauphin of France, 
many of which found their way to England a century 
later. Examples of Boulle work fetch great prices 
when, as on rare occasions, they make their appear- 
ance in a sale. 

In Germany in the seventeenth century, the most 
prominent names as designers and makers of furniture 
are Philip Heinhofer, Baumgartner, and Hans Schwan- 
hard. The former was the maker of the celebrated 
Pomeranian Cabinet (1611-1617) which is now in the 
Royal Museum at Berlin. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



69 




Figure 43 



70 



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In this century, in Italy, Andrea Brustolone (1670- 
1732) was noted as a carver, gilder, and cabinet-maker 
who worked in the extravagant style of the Louis 
Quinze (Louis XV.), and in the first half of the 




Figure 44 



eighteenth century (1700-77) Pifetti, a Piedmontese 
cabinet-maker, was honored by the Italian Court, for 
which he executed many works in ivory carving and 
marquetry work in the style of Boulle. Many other 
cabinet-makers and carvers were employed to make 
furniture and to decorate the queen's palace at Turin, 
among whom may be mentioned the names of Galleti, 
the successor of Pifetti, and Maggiolino of Milan, who 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 71 

chiefly made a kind of marquetry in light woods. We 
are indebted to Mr. J. H. Pollen's handbook on furni- 
ture for some of these names, and a list of many others 
will be found at the end of his useful book. 

The French architect, Le Pantre (1617-82), de- 
signed furniture and decoration in the heavy classical 
style of the Roman antique, mixed with shell-work, 
grotesques, and little Cupids or "putti," and also en- 
graved and published a book of studies of Roman orna- 
ment from sketches that his master, Adam Phillipon, 
had made in Italy. He worked with Le Brun, the 
painter and director of the decoration at Versailles. 
Le Brun's own work was heavy and dull, although he 
aimed at grandeur and gorgeousness of effect. He was 
director of the Gobelins tapestry manufactory, and his 
style of work was in harmony with the pompous ideas 
of Louis the "Grand Monarch." Madame de Main- 
tenon says in one of her letters to a friend, that Louis 
was so fond of symmetry and stateliness in his archi- 
tecture, as in other things, that he would have you 
"perish in his symmetry," for he caused his doors and 
windows to be constructed in pairs opposite to one 
another, which gave to everybody who lived in his 
palaces their death of cold by draughts of air. 

In this century and early in the following one, the 
art of wood carving was greatly developed in England, 
chiefly owing to the genius of Grinling Gibbons and 
to the influence of Sir Christopher Wren, the style de- 



72~ THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

veloped being a more or less realistic or baroque form 
of the Renaissance (Figs. 44 and 45). Gibbons carried 




Figure 45 

out some of his carvings to an astonishing degree of 
realism: bouquets of flowers, festoons of fruit and 
flowers, birds, figures, and drapery were executed by 
him in the highest possible relief, which looked de- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 73 

tached from the ground, and yet they usually formed a 
part of the solid wood with the background. Orna- 
ment was carved with a singular crispness, and ap- 
parently without any hesitation on the part of the 
carver. Though we may condemn the florid looseness 
of the style of Gibbons, we must admire the dexterity 
of workmanship and general technical excellence im- 
parted to everything he touched. Some of his best 
work may still be seen at Chatsworth, Petworth House 
in Sussex, Lyme Hall in Cheshire, St. Paul's Cathedral, 
and Trinity College Chapel at Oxford. 

Under the Regency of Philippe d'Orleans in France 
(17 1 5-1 723) decoration and ornament assumed a light 
and fanciful character, very naturalistic, but still hav- 
ing some classic details; of this style Claude Gillot 
is the chief exponent. Watteau, his pupil, made a great 
name as a painter of pastoral scenes, fetes galantes, 
and all kinds of light and daintily-treated subjects of 
a theatrical and artificial kind of composition. His 
color was silvery and harmonious, and sometimes he 
decorated furniture with pastoral scenes. 

The Rococo style had begun under the Regency, if 
not earlier, and such men as Oppenort, the De Cottes, 
father and son, Francois de Cuvillies, the Italians 
Bernini and Borromini, and lastly the great apostle of 
the Rococo, Meissonier, were all designers of furniture 
or architects who belonged to the period of Louis XV., 
and who executed works that reflected the loose and 



74 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

unrestrained character of the times (1723-1774). 
Chinese and naturalistic elements were grafted on, or 
mixed with, the former Louis Quatorze, with an addi- 
tion of still life that did duty for architectural form in 
objects of pottery and metal work, and a combination 
of shell work; all these elements made up the style 
known under the different names of rococo, rocaille, 
baroque, or Louis Quinze. 

Furniture was made with curved and swelling panels 
to show to more advantage the marquetry, or paintings 
on gold grounds ; these kinds of panels and friezes were 
known as "bombe." 

It is said that the Italian architects, Bernini and 
Borromini, were the first to introduce the rococo style 
into France, but no designer went so far in the wilder- 
ness of its vagaries as the French Meissonier. His 
ornament furnishes a perfect example of the want of 
balance and symmetry. He designed for furniture, 
woodwork, silver-smithery, and modelled decoration, 
all of which work illustrated the broken shell-shaped 
panels with frilled and scalloped edgings and curved 
mouldings. 

Rooms were lined with looking-glasses having these 
rocaille mouldings, which were well adapted to show 
to the best advantage the glitter of the gold leaf that 
was used inordinately on the furniture and decoration 
of the Louis-Ouinze period. 

Pierre Germain, Jean Restout, and Jean Pillment are 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



75 



well-known names of other designers of the rocaille 
style. 

Painted panels of pastoral scenes and flower groups 




Figure 46 

were the usual color decorations of ceilings, furniture, 
carriages, and a host of minor articles such as fans, 
etuis, snuff-boxes, &c. The latter smaller articles, as 
well as the state, carriages, were decorated with paint- 



76 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 47 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 77 

ings in what was known as the Vernis-Martin style. 
Martin was a decorator of carriages and an heraldic 
painter, who invented the particular hard varnish or 
lacquer which bears his name. It was quite likely that 
this was as near as possible a successful imitation of 
the Japanese gold lacquer that decorated the articles 
which were at this period imported from Japan by the 
Dutch and Portuguese traders into Europe. Car- 
riages, tables, cabinets, and especially smaller articles 
like snuff-boxes and needle-cases, were painted and 
decorated in "Vernis-Martin." Some of the smaller 
objects were beautifully mounted in chased gold. 

It was quite a common practice to cover or to panel 
furniture with plaques of Japanese lacquer, and to 
mount them in chased metal or ormoulu decorations. 
A unique commode is illustrated at Fig. 47, made from 
panels of very old Japanese lacquer and highly dec- 
orated with ormoulu mounts by Caffieri, a skilled chaser 
of the Louis-Quinze period. 

In the latter half of the eighteenth century an im- 
provement in the design of furniture and of ornament 
generally crept in, owing to the study of the orna- 
mentation and design of the classic objects that had 
been found in the buried cities of Herculaneum and 
Pompeii. These cities had been discovered in 171 3, and 
about forty or fifty years later books were published 
illustrating the buried remains, which helped to change 



78 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 79 

the public taste, and by degrees a demand arose for 
designs of a more severe and classic kind. 

The prevailing taste was then apparently gratified by 
the mixture or grafting of a certain quality of classic 
forms with the former frivolous style of the Louis 
Quinze. 

The style in furniture and in ornament now de- 
veloped into what is known as the "Louis Seize'* 
(Louis XVI.), and consisted in its ornament of a com- 
position of then scrolls, garlands, bows and quivers of 
arrows, ribbons and knots, medallions with classic 
cameo-cut subjects. Mouldings were fine and delicately 
ornamented and of straight line variety; in fact, the 
straight line now reasserted itself in architecture and 
furniture design (see Figs. 48, 49), in refreshing and 
healthy contrast to the tottering and riotous curves of 
Louis XV. and the Du Barry period. 

Some of the most beautiful furniture expressive of 
the utmost elegance was made by Riesner and David, 
and was decorated with ormoulu mounts by Gouthiere 
for the Queen Marie Antoinette. Riesner and Gouthiere 
were the ablest men of their time, who generally worked 
together in the making and decorating of the finest 
furniture of this period. There is in the Jones Collec- 
tion at South Kensington some of the very finest ex- 
amples of this furniture, much of which was made 
for Marie Antoinette (Figs. 50, 51). 

Riesner usually worked in light and richly-colored 



80 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 49 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



81 



woods, such as tulip-wood, holly, maple, laburnum, 
purple-wood, and rosewood, for his marquetry work, 
and used oak for the linings and foundations. 




Figure 50 

The best pieces of David and Riesner were usually 
mounted in ormoulu or bronze-gilt metal by Gouthiere, 
who has never been equalled as a founder and chaser 



82 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

of this class of work. Prieur was also a good chaser 
of the Louis Seize period. Delafosse was an architect 
and designer of furniture and decoration of the period, 
whose designs were of a more heavy and classical kind. 
Cauvet was a German who worked in Paris, and de- 
signed graceful arabesques and figure work, and who 
published a book of designs. Lalonde designed work 
that might be classed in the same category as that of 
Cauvet, and Salembier was a prolific designer of a light 
and free kind of arabesque. Many of his designs for 
silk may be seen in the fabric at the Silk Museum in the 
Bourse at Lyons. Le Notre designed for furniture, 
carving, and was also famed with La Quintinie as a 
designer of the state and public gardens. 

In Italy the prevailing ornament in furniture and 
decoration was more classical than in France. Piranesi, 
Albertolli, Pergolese, and Bartolozzi are names of the 
principal designers of this country in the eighteenth 
century, most of whom published extensive works on 
ornament. The latter two were brought to England 
by the brothers John and Robert Adam (1728- 1792), 
who had travelled in Italy, bringing also with them 
classical ideas, which they developed in England, and 
which influenced to a great extent the style of archi- 
tecture and furniture design in this country. The 
Adelphi building and the houses in Portland Place were 
built from designs by the Adams. 

All kinds of furniture, sedan chairs, carriages, plate, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



83 




Figure 51 



84 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



&c., were made from their designs. Fine mouldings, 
medallions, rosettes, light garlands, capitals in classic 
form, fluted pilasters and columns, were all designed by 
them with the utmost restraint in style — even to 
coldness. 




Figure 52 



Figure 53 



Thomas Chippendale was a famous cabinet-maker of 
the eighteenth century. His furniture, or even any 
good imitation of it, fetches a good price at the present 
time. He published a book on furniture design and 
interior decoration in the year 1764. His sons are sup- 
posed to have made nearly all the best of the mahogany 
furniture known as "Chippendale." 

The parlor chairs (Figs. 52 and 53) are good ex- 
amples of Chippendale furniture, and the chairs made 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



85 



in the so-called "Chinese style" (Fig-. 54) are attrib- 
uted to the elder Chippendale. 

Sheraton and Heppelwhite are names of two other 




Figure 54 



well-known cabinet-makers, who made excellent ma- 
hogany furniture in the last century, both of whom 
published works on the subject at the latter end of 
the century. 

The names of Gillow, Lichfield, Lock, and Copland 
are those of eminent cabinet-makers and decorators of 



86 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

this period, the two former firms being still in existence 
in London. 

In France, after the Revolution (1792), more de- 
cided phase of the dry and heavy classicisms was ap- 
parent in the furniture design and decoration of the 
period ( 1801 ). This return to the classic heaviness has 
been attributed to the influence of the academic painter 
David, but is more likely to have been a pandering to 
the national worship of Napoleon and the French Em- 
pire. It seemed to have been the universal desire to 
make everything echo or reflect in some measure the 
glory of the Emperor Napoleon I. The meanest thing 
had some symbol or allusion by the way of decoration 
that should remind everybody of the greatness of the 
new monarch and of the French Empire, and conse- 
quently the heavy and ponderous style of that period 
was known as the "Empire Style." The furniture of 
the Empire was usually made in mahogany, decorated 
with mountings in brass or bronze, of sphinxes, griffins, 
Roman emblems, and antique scrollery. 

Percier and Fontaine are names of French cabinet- 
makers and designers who worked in the Empire style, 
and who published a book of their designs. (Fig. 55.) 

In England the style was copied, and endless imita- 
tions of the French fashion in tables, sofas, chairs, cabi- 
nets, and clocks were designed after the same antique 
ideals. 

In this country, during the earlier half of the last 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 87 

century the mediaeval Gothic style was partly revived 
in architecture and in furniture, mainly owing to the 
efforts of W. Pugin, the architect. He designed many 




Figure 55 

pieces of furniture, and published a work consisting of 
Gothic designs in the year 1835. Notwithstanding the 
efforts of Pugin and some other eminent architects and 
"purists," no particular lasting impression was made in 
this direction. 

If we except a few of the best cabinet-makers' shops, 
where in the present day some furniture of good design 



88 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET .MAKER 







Figure 56 

is made, the majority of such work is now made by ma- 
chinery, or is often too much the work of the uphol- 
sterer, and is consequently less artistic and more me- 
chanical in both design and construction. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



89 



Some of the most beautiful of Japanese and Chinese 
manufacture is made in carved wood and lacquered in 
black or red. Cabinets with drawers and quaintly con- 
trived cupboards and recesses (Fig. 55) are made by 
the Japanese, finished in lacquers, and inlaid with ivory 
and mother - of - pearl. The 
Chinese are especially skilled 
in carving red lac-work. 
Some vases of great dimen- 
sions and of exquisite work- 
manship in this material may 
be seen in the various Mu- 
seums. Lac-work is also ex- 
ecuted with great skilfulness 
by the natives of India. 
Bracelets, armlets, or golias, 
are made of lac in various 
colors, the golden decorations 
of which are made from tin- 
foil and varnished with a 
yellow varnish made of 
myrrh, copal, and sweet oil 
boiled together. Boxes, bed- 
posts, and other furniture, 
made in wood or papier- 
mache, are lacquered and 
decorated with flat render- 
ings of flowers and conven- Figure 5: 




90 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

tional shapes of animals and birds (Figs. 56, 57). All 
kinds of toys, weights and measures, cooking utensils, 
circular playing-cards, turnery, etc., are objects in small 
wares made in the choicest lac-work of India. 

Style in Furniture and Details of Style. 

In looking back through the past ages, since the days 
of the supremacy of the Roman Empire, and after lis- 
tening to the wonderful tales of the magnificent luxury 
and extreme prodigality of the sovereigns who reigned, 
and of the Lords and Ladies who lived in those times, 
we are led to suppose that the furniture of these palaces 
was of a kind that if it could be restored to its original 
splendour would strike our eyes in this present genera- 
tion as something great in architectural beauty and daz- 
zling in its gorgeousness. 

We have learned to look with longing eyes on the 
Ottoman Empire as the place where luxurious ease has 
reached the highest attainable point within the limits of 
human skill, and think that the harem of the Turkish 
Vizier must be a sort of fairy palace lined with silk and 
satin, and full of couches so soft and easy that to re- 
cline on them is enough to send one to sleep. 

If the truth were told, not one person in ten has any- 
thing like a proper idea of what furniture was in days 
gone by; and stranger yet, except in a few instances, 
people know very little about the finest furniture of the 
present day. One shop will turn out a bedstead, an- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 91 

other a set of frames, and so on, but the people that 
make them seldom see them after they are finished, and 
in a house that is carpeted, curtained, and completely 
furnished, and if they did, would scarcely recognize 
them as the results of their handiwork. 

The majority of people obtain their ideas of furni- 
ture, modern as well as ancient, from reading, and two- 
thirds of the descriptions of furniture that are written 
are fabrications of some fertile brain that does not 
know a sideboard with a glass in it from a bureau. 
Therefore when we read accounts of ancient furniture 
and its great superiority over that in use now, first see 
whence the authority comes before believing it all. We 
have seen accounts of the magnificence of the furniture 
of the Romans in the time of Constantine ; of the tables 
and chairs inlaid with gold, silver, and precious stones ; 
of ease and barbaric splendour that was startling; 
whereas the same chairs and tables were as uncouth and 
cumbersome and uncomfortable as most people believe 
them to be comfortable and elegant. They may have 
been heavy with gems, but the gems were beautiful — 
not the chairs. 

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries more atten- 
tion was paid to the architectural part of furniture than 
at any time before or since, but they lacked comfort, 
and we owe it to the French that instead of following 
the true principles of architecture and endeavouring to 
furnish luxury with art, they adopted a gaudy tinsel 



92 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



style that had no art and little comfort. Marie An- 
toinette set a fashion of glitter and glare, and in her 
time more money was spent in gorgeous furniture than 
at any other since the dark ages, not even excepting the 
shoddy time within our own recollection. 

Although there is much fault to be found with mod- 
ern furniture, at no time has it been any better than 
it is now, to meet the wants of the people — and while 
we condemn the want of architectural merit, much, par- 
ticularly in the richer classes, of the present day, is 
superior to that of the ancients. The furniture of the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries had artistic merit and 
but little comfort, and was so rude in construction that 
the beauty of design was lost in the rough, unfinished 
look it presented, while today high finish, elegance of 
construction, and inviting look of comfort, do much to 
retard the introduction of pure architecture. When these 
two things, art and comfort, are combined, as they well 
may be, and soon will be, for we are glad to see the in- 
clination in that way, it will be said years hence that the 
people of the nineteenth cen- 
tury were the first to turn 
out perfect furniture. We 
ought more properly to have 
said in the latter part of the 
nineteenth century, for per- 
haps nothing could be much An Old Cradle 
worse than the furniture of the earlier part, particu- 




THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 93 

lady here in our own land, for we had a mixture of the 
French, always bad, of the English, that was nonde- 
script, and of the Puritans, that was — what shall we 
call it ? let it be nameless ; — we all know how it looked, 
and none would now care to use it. 

The sumptuous furniture of old, is of itself sufficient 
to prove the truth of the statement which has been made 
as to the advances made during the period of wealth and 
luxury. One could not desire to see a more beautiful 
bedroom, for instance, than that in which James I. of 
England was accustomed to sleep during his visits to 
Knole, in Kent, and which is, to our minds, only the 
more attractive for a kind of grave stateliness that 
pervades the whole. The mothers of the present day 
may, perhaps, feel interested in knowing what kind of 
article a cradle was about three centuries ago; it was 
a species of box, or coffer on rockers, decorated elab- 
orately with carvings. In later times French feeling 
crept into our furniture and, to our thinking, by no 
means improved it. 

Illustrations of the elaborate and highly decorated 
character of the furniture belonging to the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries, are shown in our pages, from 
which our readers may derive some useful and sugges- 
tive hints from these reproductions. 

There is, we know, of great power in this world, a 
certain fascinating spirit, called fashion; which con- 
trols the fancy, and compels it to a predilection, and, at 



94 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

its pleasure, to a change of predilection, for forms and 
colors, and practices, quite independently of reason, and 
not seldom in the most direct opposition to common- 
sense. . 

Fashion nevertheless is sometimes a brainless spirit, 
if the expression may be allowed of spirit; and without 
sense of good or evil. It will ally itself with taste, 
whether good or bad, and with moral order, good or 
bad. Among the Greeks of old, connecting itself with 
good taste (we wish we could add good morals) in its 
progress towards perfection, and maintaining the alli- 
ance, when perfection was attained. Fashion was of 
inestimable value. In some instances Fashion has been 
found capable of fixing a good moral order; and then 
of course it has been of worth still far more transcend- 
ant. But this brainless spirit, perhaps oftener has made 
bad taste immovable; of which the Chinese afford a 
great example. 

But, among the Greeks, in architecture, in literature, 
even in dress, things were so settled, that one general 
character of Grecian taste has been the allowed criterion 
of perfection, for now about three thousand years. How 
was it that the spirit of fashion, among them, held such 
persevering connection with the spirits of common sence 
and good taste? Could it be because women were so 
excluded from general society as to have little influence 
in directing Fashion, or in supporting her in her way- 
ward fancies? Surely the spirit of steadiness is not 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 95 

alien from the English character : in graver matters we 
know it to be eminent. The famous "Nolumus leges 
Angliae mutari," has been persevered in for centuries; 
and we may hope will be persevered in as long as the 
world shall last, or as long as it shall please providence 
that the English nation exist. But in matters of taste, 
certainly it has not been so. 

There is not a demon more adverse to good taste 
than the spirit of Novelty. In matters of taste, as in 
almost everything, there are commonly many wrong 
ways for one right. Now the spirit of Novelty allows 
readily the passing from wrong to right ; but at no rate, 
the perseverance in right; whence wrong must, many 
times to one, with him, prevail. With this spirit, fash- 
ion has long, in this country, but especially of late days, 
held close alliance. Fashion has no will of her own ; but 
Novelty, though ever-changing, has, for the moment, 
a most determined one. Thus, Fashion still appearing 
the imperial lady, and Novelty but her minister, he 
easily leads her his own way. 

In what high estimation both these whimsical spirits 
are held very extensively, net to say universally, among 
the ladies, is enough known. The ladies even in Amer- 
ica rarely have their natural good taste improved, but 
often much perverted by education. Taught from in- 
fancy to revere the majesty of Fashion and to consider 
her sovereignty as not to be even decently opposed, with 
a living feeling for the charms of Novelty, they set 



96 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

about their imperial business of furnishing a house. 
Ranging the fashionable upholsterers' warehouses, they 
feel themselves as in a sea of delights, but as in a vessel 
with a port to seek. Without a compass they look to 
Fashion as their polar star, their sails are filled by 
Novelty, and they give the helm to fancy. 

The sky is clear, the weather most temperate; but 
under license of Fashion, Novelty, with his handmaid 
Variety, dispensing the winds, they are ever shifting. 
Fancy, distracted, grows giddy; her nerves falter, her 
hand shakes, her eyes twinkle, and she can no longer by 
day take the height of the sun, or by night with any cer- 
tainty discover her polar star, a changeling polar star, 
Fashion. Thus distressed, the lady seeks advice from 
experience, and the cabinet-maker or upholsterer is 
called to her assistance. 

Beyond all others the spirit of Novelty and Variety 
are objects of the upholsterer's workshop. He professes 
infinite reverence for Fashion. But his loyalty is for 
the fashion that may happen to reign for the day : nor 
is it, like the Vicar of Bray's, an ever acquiescing loy- 
alty; on the contrary, he is ever aiming at revolution. 
The lady is aware of the unsteadiness of the reign of 
Fashion ; and not less anxious than the upholsterer to be 
prepared to adore the rising sun; but with this differ- 
ence : he is always ready for revolution ; she devotes 
herself more to the present power, and dreads changes. 
in which others may be before her. Not wholly un- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 97 

aware then of hazard in committing herself to his ad- 
vice, having made her inquiries, and gained all attain- 
able information, her purpose is to direct her uphol- 
sterer; but he is versed in the ways of leading her. 

It behooves the cabinet-maker and upholsterer much 
to have talent in matters of taste, and to cultivate it so 
as to distinguish good from bad ; but more, it behooves 
him to know the weak points in human nature. Noth- 
ing so advantageous for him as to gain prevalence for 
a new fashion of very bad taste ; and the more grossly 
bad the surer and greater his benefit ; because the easier 
will be the task to bring about another change ; for of 
all things change is most beneficial to him. 

The upholsterer's interest then is in direct opposition 
to the architect's credit. Put him into command in a 
room, and his first purpose must be to overwhelm the 
architect's work. What are elegancies in stucco, stone, 
or marble to him? For daylight indeed he is a little 
dependent; he must have windows from the architect; 
and till stoves were brought into use he wanted him 
also for the chimney. But for candlelight, "Give me a 
barn," he says, "and I will so throw my many-folded 
drapery, suspended on my golden thyrsus-fashioned 
poles, that nothing shall be seen needing the architect's 
art to supply." 

To proceed with this subject, I will venture only to 
state a principle or two, which I trust you will admit, 
and I hope you will recommend to the ladies. When a 



98 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

house is ready for the furnisherif it has any decoration 
of architecture fit to be seen, and not rather 'deserving 
to be treated as the upholsterer, would' very properly 
treat the barn, the style of that decoration should be re- 
spected in the design of the furniture. Either all should 
be upholstery, or the upholstery should be subordinate 
to the architecture, and harmonize with it. Can it be 
requisite — I fear it may — to superadd, that the furni- 
ture should harmonize with itself through all its parts; 
that gaudy and ill assorted colors, awkward forms, and 
even elegant forms and foldings, in that kind of display 
which may deserve the epithet meretricious, however 
warranted by the- fashion of the day, should be avoided. 
With what ideas do that nakedness of the female figure, 
and that abundant complexity, that mystery of folding, 
of the drapery about the room to receive such figures, as 
we have been accustomed to see, harmonize ? Fashion 
indeed is powerful, and sometimes grossly perverse. 
What could be reasonably done with the human head 
during the century and more of the successive fashions 
of the full bottomed wig, the aile-de-pigeon hair-dress- 
ing, and all that intervened and followed, till wigs and 
elaborate hair-dressing were both abolished ? Fashion, 
it must be confessed, has a strange power of fascina- 
tion, which even strong minds have difficulty wholly to 
resist, even when that power is exerted most in opposi- 
tion to evident reason. But it is only when a fashion 
has obtained universal and lasting prevalence that rea- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 99 

son is so compelled to submit to it. Generally large 
choice is open. Reason and better taste may well ven- 
ture upon opposition to partial and ephemeral absurd- 
ities, and, with due exertion, would prevent their gain- 
ing any overbearing ascendency. 

The present rage for old articles of household use, 
table decoration, and personal adornment is a whim of 
fashion, in many instances the coveted articles having 
no element of propriety in our modern life. Very few 
of them are valuable in the light of sentiment, having no 
association with beloved friends or with historical 
events. 

But apart f r om these considerations the love for gen- 
uine old relics of furniture, especially, has an excellent 
reason for its being. There are really valuable and use- 
ful articles of household economy which unreasoning 
style has relegated to the second-hand furniture store, 
to the attic, or to the barn, or perhaps ruthlessly de- 
stroyed, and which have been replaced by modern arti- 
cles far inferior. The present spring seat sofa with its 
tufted cushions and tortoise back seat is not half 
so inviting and restful' as the old-fashioned, flat seated, 
broad sofa, long enough to receive a six-footer, and 
broad enough to hold him safely if sleep overtook him. 
Many of these articles are of solid w r ood with no sus- 
picion of veneering, and their forms are really more 
elegant than those of to-day. Modern veneered and 
upholstered furniture requires repairing every few 



100 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




years, or is worn beyond revamping within the recollec- 
tion of a ten year old child. It is a source of regret 
that with the rage for antique furniture there is not also 
a demand for old time honesty 
in workmanship. In spite of 
the sneer against the old style 
straight backed chairs, most of 
the old style furniture was 
made for convenience. There 
never was a more convenient 
article of furniture than the 
old desk and drawers com- A win e Cabinet 
bined — drawers below a folded-back desk, the back 
being pigeon holed, and the desk on hinges to be let 
down to form a writing shelf, and projecting far 
enough forward to give room for the writer's knees. 
The cupboard was another useful article for the kitchen 
or dining room. It contained two or more wide draw- 
ers, with doors above them opening on shelves and 
racks, the whole standing on legs high enough to admit 
of sweeping under the cupboard. Memory recalls one, 
the framing and ends being of white walnut or hickory 
and the door panels and drawer fronts of cherry, both 
native woods, the creamy white of the hickory contrast- 
ing finely with the warm wine red of the cherry. These 
colors were set off by pendent pulls and door key 
escutcheon of polished ungilded brass that could be re- 
polished and kept from the dilapidated appearance of 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



101 




102 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the warm gilded brass of the present. Such an article of 
furniture would give an air of substantial comfort to 
any modern home. 

The inferiority of modern made furniture cannot 
properly be attributed to machine duplicated work ; it is 
as possible to make first class work by duplicating by 
machinery as by hand ; else our hand tools and machine 
tools would be much more costly than they are. But it 
is undeniable that most of the furniture made within the 
memory of the elderly portion of the present generation 
compares favorably with that now made, in durability 
and integrity of workmanship. In these qualities it 
would be well if our manufacturers shared in the rage 
for the antique. 

Mediaeval furniture — Mobilia, as it is rightly styled 
— is one of the rarest manifestations of art-work or 
handicraft. Our knowledge of it is principally from pic- 
tures, illustrated MSS. and carvings. Contrary to the 
received opinion of some of the acknowledged author- 
ities on Mediaeval art, we are convinced that there 
would be no difficulty in producing a very complete his- 
tory of mobilia, the material for which could be drawn 
from the sources indicated. We see many modern speci- 
mens of both a bad and vitiated class of works, made at 
a time when splendid decoration reigned in place of art, 
and indeed no such thing as art existed. From this 
period we moderns have borrowed almost all our 
models, it being precisely the most unhappy choice we 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 103 

could have made, not only on account of the amount of 
useless, expensive, and vulgar decoration it has led us 
into, but because the mere system of construction adopt- 
ed is false, and so far, happily, insuring no lasting dura- 
bility to the products of such workmanship. The fur- 
niture of every country has echoed in its form and deco- 
ration the character and spirit of the art then prevailing. 
In Egypt, of old, the tables, seats, couches, etc., pre- 
served in the British Museum and other collections, tes- 
tify to this; one or two things copied in bronze or mar- 
ble from Greek works of this class, express exactly the 
same kind of thing, and point out by the extreme chas- 
tity of their forms, the peculiar idiosyncrasy of that 
nation, no less than by the skillful manner in which they 
are put together, the mechanical ability of the work- 
man. Our knowledge of Roman doings in this matter 
is derived from similar sources. One or two examples 
of curule chairs that might have belonged to Pro-Con- 
suls of Gaul or elsewhere, do indeed remain, with 
strange legends attached to them, and saints and mon- 
archs of very questionable verity or appropriateness. 
Upon Pompeian pictures, bronzes, etc., we must rely, 
without which we should be more ignorant of these 
things than of the seemingly much more perishable and 
fragile manufactures in glass and earthenware, or even 
iron, of which such innumerable specimens exist. We 
have as many remains of Assyria as of old Rome. There 
is no doubt from the gorgeous illuminations of the 



104 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



period of the lower Empire, that the furniture then in 
use was, characteristically wrought, of extraordinary 
splendour, gilded, incrusted, and inlaid with ivory and 
jewels to a degree that quite marred its artistic beauty. 
Of this, much purified by Italian taste, some slight 




Figure 59 



traces are to be found in the Venetian works, affected 
as they were in this, as in other things, by oriental 
neighborhood and associations. The Venetians im- 
proved these works, be it understood, and chastened, 
while they truly enriched the tawdry over decoration 
of the Greeks.. Their conquest in the islands and com- 
mercial seats in so many parts of the Byzantine Em- 
pire, brought them in contact with more than one point 
of its character. Of constructional felicity there is al- 
most none in Byzantine examples of which we have 
knowledge. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 105 

In Europe, in the middle ages, the character of 
mobilia was ever that of current architecture, then the 
art to which all the other major as well as minor arts 
were subordinated, — that fact of their subordination 
being one to be ever most needfully borne in mind by 
the student of archaeological science and mediaeval art. 
We find this leading fact constantly forgotten by writ- 
ers on the arts. To furniture particularly, painting be- 
came serviceable, the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fif- 
teenth centuries never missing an opportunity of em- 
ploying that art in this way. Hence, several painters 
began life as decorators, as many more were sculptors 
who began as goldsmiths. Marquetry was another 
most effective means of decoration, becoming estimable 
from an early period of these epochs by the careful 
method of its execution, and, later, from the fine forms 
and colors its patterns displayed. In the sixteenth cen- 
tury much beautiful work was produced, its early dec- 
ades being, indeed, to be regarded as the culminating 
period in furniture designing. Colors due to the above 
means, or rich velvets and silks, brocaded or woven with 
gold thread, took precedence in characteristic ornamen- 
tation at a somewhat late portion of this era. But carv- 
ing, as so many French and German works testify, was 
largely employed. Both these characters ran into ruin- 
ous riot in the next epoch, and lavish magnificence took 
the place of beautiful design, the use of things them- 
selves becoming hidden under a desire to waste all the 



106 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



costliness and folly of extravagant ornamentation upon 
them. At this time began the still existing mania for 
furniture made for show ; and to be shut up in a room, 
wastefully decorated with merely costly ornaments, in- 
tended to be seen only, and but sparingly brought into 
use. It was the "bright poker" idea at its maddest. 
Hence we now find reception rooms that were too fine 
for use, and frail furniture neither man nor woman 
dared to intrust their persons upon. More sumptuosity 
and ridiculous degradation of taste burst out under 
Louis XIV., when those preposterously tawdry gew- 
gaws that are to be seen here and there in sale rooms, 
when some old household is broken up, overloaded with 
tortoise shell, brass, sham jewelry, and vile carvings, 
and generally made to imitate something that had not 
the remotest resemblance to the real nature of article 
in question, but preferably that farthest from it. Thus 
a cabinet or "armoire" faced the world with an extrava- 
gant architectural frontage, 
and a chest of drawers was 
a miniature frontage. As 
was to be expected from the 
political state of the time, the 
most hideous of these mon- 
Figure 58 strosities came, not from 

France, where the taste for these originated, but from 
servile Germany, whose craftsmen vied with each 
other in the cities of Nuremburg, Augsburg, and Dres- 




THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



107 




Plate II 



108 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

den, as to who should make the most monstrous fool- 
ery at the most wasteful cost. Italy, as usual, before 
her utter degradation kept to the fashions of an earlier 
date or improved by her native gift of taste, upon that 
current in such a manner that something of her old 
inheritance is seen even at this time. 

Later in the seventeenth century especially, this 
whimsicality took a new bent, and a queer hothouse 
sort of life, a meretricious vitality, such as disease often 
has, broke out, and the Louis XV. fashion got into 
vogue, when oddly shaped forms, mouldings and inlays 
were employed, and flat surfaces bore the works of 
men's lives — not of their minds, but of their patient dull 
drudgery at outre and elaborate combinations of art — 
necessarily, therefore, devoid of real taste and common 
sense. Incrustations of brass, copper, tin, and even 
silver were engraved by the burin to imitate relief or 
actual mouldings. Wreaths, termed masks — not the 
pretty Amorini of an earlier age — were attached to the 
articles, their office being almost invariably to hide some 
dishonesty of construction or to give a curve to some 
weak angle or strengthen some spindling line, to the eye 
at least, but not in fact. Indeed it is notably a marked 
characteristic of this class of works that all their ten- 
dencies are to be willfully false. One sees at once that 
the craftsman does not err in ignorance of the demands 
of his duty because things which might, constructionallv 
employed, give real strength when needed, although of 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 109 

a supplementary sort, willfully give only the look of 
strength, and, as if by malicious intention to lie for 
lying's sake, neglect their duty when it \yere easier to 
do it honestly than to fail or neglect. Thus it is in the 
major art of that time; thus it was in life, among the 
leaders, at least; thus it was upon everything that lies 
upon the surface of that rotten era, that nothing but 
the fiery ruin of revolution could purge pure. 

Mere costliness is no element of art or good taste. 
We have seen very handsome chairs sold at a price that 
would condemn them in the eyes of untrained wealth, 
just as we have seen on the tea-table of the poor and 
lowly, low cost china that would put to blush — if it was 
possible — much of the high priced porcelain that decor- 
ates the cabinets of the wealthy. 

The perfecting of many processes of manufacture has 
placed at the disposal of artists and ornamental design- 
ers means for the reproduction and multiplication of 
their works, of which they have not been slow to avail 
themselves. As a class they undoubtedly occupy more 
definitely the position of leaders or teachers ; and we are 
fairly entitled to hope that by this teaching the standard 
of public taste has been raised. The soil to be culti- 
vated is rank with weeds, and the intelligent laborers 
are few. Our manufactures are in advance of our 
taste. The conditions of art and manufacture in the 
Middle Ages are in our day reversed : then there was a 
Raphael to design, but no Minton to reproduce skillfully 



110 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 






and at a cheap rate the pattern example ; now we have 
the power of cheap reproduction, but not many designs 
worth reproducing; so we wisely store our museums 
with all the best examples of human invention, and thus 
provide ourselves at once with a standard, and with a 
check upon any vain ideas we may be disposed to en- 
tertain of our intellectual superiority and advanced 
taste. 

Never in the world's history were the means of 
spreading a taste for art among the people as abundant. 
The productions of our manufacturers are placed be- 
fore us with cheapness and certainty, and where bad 
taste in designs is to be noted, the fault can hardly be 
laid at the door of the producer, who, in many cases 
failing to secure the services of an original or even 
capable designer, is driven to pander to a taste which 
he would willingly enough direct if he could. We have 
so-called schools of design, instituted expressly to pro- 
vide our manufacturers with intelligent designers; and 
we are able, by means of lithographic printing and photo 
engraving, to distribute cheaply and make common 
property throughout the length and breadth of the land 
the finest examples of all good art, in whatever form it 
may have appeared. Yet, after all, in the comprehen- 
sion of good design, in appreciation of beautiful form, 
in sentiment of color, we are but a barbarous people as 
compared with any Eastern nation, or with our own 
Gothic ancestors. The best that can be said of us is 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 111 

that we feel our inferiority when we look at an Indian 
shawl, at a Moorish pitcher, a Persian rug, or a Chinese 
vase. We try unsuccessfully to reproduce them ; we do 
actually reproduce the ceramic ware of the 16th century, 
and glory in it; while we vainly strive to copy the 
mediaeval stained-glass windows, and are driven to 
confess that a people who flourished before the founda- 
tion of Rome were capable of designing a gold setting 
for a brooch which puts all our barbarous efforts to 
shame. 

The spread of art is one thing; the advance is an- 
other. With our eyes open, it would be vain to deny 
that throughout the kingdom a new taste has arisen, 
and a desire among all classes of the people to appro- 
priate some form of art is evident. But taste implies 
only accuracy of judgment, not that power of execu- 
tion which follows in its wake. The taste of the man 
who knows is not that of the man who does. 

The first-named may be considered as a bon vivant, 
who is fond of the dishes before him, and distinguishes 
nicely what is savoury and delicious, or flat and insipid 
in the ingredients of each ; while the second may be re- 
garded as the cook, who, from knowing what things 
will mix well together, and distinguishing by a nice 
taste, when he has arrived at that happy result, is able 
to compose such exquisite mixtures. 

In the construction and ornamentation of furniture, 
as of buildings, grounds, clothing, and of everything" 



112 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

else of a material character, external to ourselves, sev- 
eral things are to be considered in their relation to our 
needs, comfort, and enjoyment. The mere necessaries 
of life are really very few, though even these may be 
multiplied by habit, education, and circumstance. The 
man of thorough culture and high civilization certainly 
needs many things which the savage can do without and 
which would be even an incumbrance to him. But if 
these, increased in number as they are by artificial cir- 
cumstances, are fully supplied, we are not, and ought 
not to be, satisfied. We may and should consider what 
is adapted to promote our comfort and gratify our 
taste, ministering appropriately, in both directions, to 
our enjoyment. For our present purpose and in connec- 
tion with cabinet and upholstery work, it will be suffi- 
cient to consider three things — Novelty, Taste and 
Utility. 

i. Novelty. — This is always a source of pleasure, 
affording a healthful excitement to the mind. This is 
the reason of the frequently sudden and extreme changes 
in fashion, of the desire to visit localities and scenes 
which are new and strange to us, and of the effort to 
secure for the gratification of all the senses ever new 
means of pleasure and excitement. The conservative 
critic may find fault with this universal tendency to in- 
novation, but it will excite and exert its influence so 
long as the human mind tires of sameness, and seeks 
for change. We desire repose and permanency of con- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



113 




18 Louis Seize Detail 

Plate m 



114 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

ditions and surroundings only when we have ceased to 
acquire and develop, and our powers have begun to de- 
cline with the coming on of old age. This quality of 
novelty is one which all who would cater for the popu- 
lar taste and, by so doing, secure and maintain a suc- 
cessful business, must aim at in connection with other 
qualities of excellence. It is also unquestionably true 
that the desire and effort for novelty leads sometimes to 
the adoption of styles and ornaments which are unsym- 
metrical and incongruous, and though striking and 
sometimes even almost pleasing to those who crave that 
which is startling and outre, they will greatly offend 
good taste. There are certain established principles 
which are the basis of all correct procedure, and any 
rule of mechanical practice, or even what has come to be 
an established custom may be departed from or neg- 
lected, so that there is no infringement of these fixed 
principles, among which may be named fitness, utility, 
propriety. If, in seeking novelty, the artist-mechanic 
introduces that which is in violation of the principles of 
unity and harmony, he will forfeit his claim to be called 
in any sense an artist. Let him rather search for the 
union of novelty with other beauties, with a constant 
consideration of a reference to fundamental princi- 
ples., and to this end it will be well that he should thor- 
oughly study the details of the works of ancient art, 
whether of the Gothic and other mediaeval styles, or of 
the more remote classical. From these may be gathered 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 115 

suggestions which, by exact reproduction or suitable 
combination, will afford designs, which may be applied 
to modern uses with excellent effect for internal finish- 
ing and furniture. 

2. We consider, in the next place, the element of 
Taste in construction and ornamentation. It has been 
well said that "art can lend to an object a value, greater 
than that of the material and workmanship of which it 
consists, even when the object is formed of precious ma- 
terials, as of rare marbles, scarce woods, or 'silver or 
gold/ ' And, where the material is of less intrinsic 
value, yet more will depend on art and the taste dis- 
played in figure and ornament. The beautiful, the taste- 
ful has a commercial value — a remark as true of the 
goods named in the opening sentence of this article, as 
of those in any line of manufacture. It follows, then, 
that the manufacturer, who can in the highest degree 
secure that the productions of his establishment shall 
be in the greatest degree tasteful, and worthy to be 
styled beautiful, will in this fact secure no mean advan- 
tage in the busy arena of competition. Expenditure in 
the employment of designers who shall be true artists, 
even though it may seem hardly necessary or profitable, 
may prove to be really wise in principle, and most satis- 
factory in results. The workman also may, with great 
benefit to himself, study these works thus greatly en- 
hancing the value of his labor, and become more than 
a mechanic, for he that can, in a novel form or one that 



116 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

is original with himself, form a chair or a table, which, 
either as a whole or in its details, is really tasteful — "a 
thing of beauty" — is truly an artist. If he has the 
laudable ambition in this manner to rise above his fel- 
lows, let him acquaint himself with the laws of beauty, 
so that he shall be able at once to see the difference, and 
the reason of it, between the beautiful and the ugly, the 
graceful and the deformed, the refined and the coarse. 
Let him study the works of art of all ages, in the great 
variety of subjects to which art has been applied, and he 
will not only have opened to him new and most fruitful 
sources of pleasures, but will add, to mere skill in the 
use of tools, the development of a talent that shall com- 
mand its price. 

3. The other point which we proposed to consider 
was — Utility. This may appear to be independent in 
some measure of the considerations before named, yet 
a manifest adaptation to the purpose for which it is de- 
signed will be an element in the decision of the question 
whether it is tasteful or not. Such is the constitution 
of the human mind that what might, aside from any 
consideration of its use, seem to be without form or 
comeliness, assumes a certain appearance of beauty, 
when it seems to be precisely fitted to the convenience of 
the user. It is also clear that the purpose for which an 
object is intended should be met in its structure and 
form, and no adjunct, for the sake merely of decoration, 
should be permitted to interfere with its utility, or be 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



117 



inconsistent with the position which it occupies in rela- 
tion to the whole subject or article. The material 
should be studied with its adaptability to those forms 

Chair of Queen Hatasu 
who lived 1600 \tj*jis b c 




Figure 60 

which are essential to the use of the article which is to 
be manufactured. It should not be assumed that, be- 
cause certain forms and decorations may be appropriate 
to one material, they would be equally adapted to, and 
look equally well in, another material entirely different 
in its character. One of the essentials of a good design 



118 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

in industrial art is the adaptation of the natural charac- 
teristics of the materials in which the design is to be 
realized. The form, also, must in every case subserve 
the purpose for which the article is to be made, the lines 
being as graceful and as true in the relative proportions 
of the parts as will be consistent with the convenience of 
the person who may use the article. When, however, 
the objection is made to a chair or to a lounge that one 
cannot sit or rest easily and comfortably upon it, it is 
not a sufficient answer that the form of the one is grace- 
ful and all its lines those of beauty, and that the other is 
tasteful in design, and that in material and covering 
there is harmony both of proportions and of colors. 
They are articles not to be looked at — not that merely 
or chiefly — but to be used, and in their very form 
should be suggestive of rest, refreshment, repose. 
Other illustrations might be given of this point ; these, 
however, will suffice to illustrate the position that, when- 
ever utility is sacrificed to novelty or to ornamental ap- 
pearance, however pretty, the article is badly designed, 
and the art or skill exercised upon it has been practi- 
cally thrown away. 

Words are more or less indefinite in their meaning, 
and admit of wider and more comprehensive transla- 
tion, according to their context with other words, or 
their association with ideas previously existing in the 
minds of their hearers. Among them all, there are per- 
haps none more difficult to explain than the word style, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 119 

by Webster, we shall find how large is its range, how 
wide its divergence from any center that can be marked 
out for it. Walker puts among other things as its sig- 
nification "manner of writing," with regard to lan- 
guage; manner of speaking, appropriate to particular 
character ; title, appellation. All this may be right ; at 
any rate is enough for him who is not required to go 
into lengthy definitions, but merely to throw out such 
suggestions as will, when united with others, be the 
seed of future comprehension. 

I think we may acknowledge style to be the instru- 
ment of power by which we convey emphasis of expres- 
sion in our work, and render intelligible forms which 
would otherwise be both meaningless and purposeless. 
There is another word which artists are in the habit of 
associating, and even confusing with style, Manner, 
which when repeated again and again is designated as 
mannerism, a feature by which we are too often enabled 
to distinguish the productions of one man, and even of 
one age, from those of another; but there is a wide dif- 
ference between it and style. Style advances whatever 
it is attached to, makes its intentions more evident, in- 
creases the force of its expression, as well as frees it 
from impurities which in no way help the object it has 
in view ; while manner, or mannerism, on the contrary, 
serves no good purpose, is, in fact, most frequently 
merely the mirror in which the artist, or may be the 
period at which he lived, is unconsciously reflected. 



120 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

That style and manner are frequently so mingled one 
with another as to render it difficult to separate them, or 
to distinguish which is which, I will confess; but the 
simple text I have here put to you will, I think, if care- 
fully attended to, though perhaps not serving as an 
exact definition, show what is style and what is not, and 
even tell in what proportion mannerism, if any, is in- 
troduced. 

This question the student will do well to constantly 
consider, as it tends to elevate what he may send forth, 
and keep it free from much that is detrimental to excel- 
lence, though at the same time highly seductive to the 
young mind. I wish to be the more impressive in this 
advice, because I cannot help fancying that at this mo- 
ment there is a more than usual quantity of mannerism 
passing for style in the world of Art, and that students 
are mistaking one for the other, and running after the 
wrong thing, by affecting peculiarities and imitating 
weaknesses belonging to past ages, and quite out of 
place in the present day. I am not saying this in any 
invidious spirit; on the contrary, I am ready to ac- 
knowledge that many fine works are put forth among 
us, that carry out with powerful emphasis the spirit that 
is within them, simply because the treatment of every 
part is in unison with that spirit, and serves to elucidate 
the meaning intended by the sculptor ; but the weed of 
mannerism is growing at the same time among us — 
mannerism, I fancy, not derived even from the best 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 121 

time of Art; and I feel that it is my duty to protest 
against it. 

Style is the gold that is the mark of genius, and man- 
nerism the color by which you distinguish from whence 
it comes. All that relates to style is derived from the 
most profound knowledge. 

With some style implies simple excellence of treat- 
ment in contradiction to the absence of that quality, and 
they read it as a mannerism always the same, and equal- 
ly applicable to the carrying out in Art of all subjects — 
they talk of a Classical style and think this is the only 
adjunct that can properly be attached to it. There are 
other meanings to the word than this, or rather its 
meaning is capable of great extension. There is the 
Severe style, perhaps pretty much, though not quite the 
same thing as the Classical; then there is the Gothic 
style, which, clinging to a certain extent to the Classi- 
cal, has its own peculiar mode of expression. Then, 
again, the simple and the Florid styles, which, it is not 
too much to say, are directly opposed to each other; 
and the Domestic style, which contradicts and entirely 
sets at defiance the Classical ; and we might even add to 
them the Grotesque style, which hardly claims relation- 
ship with any of them. We will endeavour to explain 
the difference between them and the requirements of 
each. 

The classical style would be the line we should adopt 
in our work when the subject to be treated belongs to 



122 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the classical days of old — when it associates itself with 
the grand old bards whose distant footsteps echo 
through the corridors of time, or whose conceptions are 
of that lofty nature that they admit of no minute detail, 
or dwelling on petty things. Our illustrations of them 
should then be in the same style, severe and simple, not 




Figure 61 

like everyday Nature, but like a something which we 
all of us, more or less, endeavour to conceive, and even 
long to be about us; but which can only exist ideally 
within ourselves, more or less clear, according as we are 
capable of entering into the feeling of the poet, or of 
becoming part of it ourselves. 

The error modern imitators of Greek Art generally 
commit is exaggerating the tendency to straight lines 
and the repetition of them. 

The Gothic style, as we have said before, retains 
some connection with the Classic by preserving its quiet 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 123 

simplicity as well as its grace of line. That it has much 
of mannerism cannot be denied, arising, often from the 
mistake of the workers in it, who have fancied that 
rudeness and exaggeration of form necessarily be- 
longed to it. This peculiarity, however, appertains only 
to the more decayed periods, and not to the time when 
it rose into beauty and fine art, as in the 13th century. 
That it had then and has now a style of its own is 
certain, for it had to express and does express the tone 
and feeling of a religion quite distinct from that of the 
Greeks — less earthly or sensuous, more pure and ethe- 
real, more divine. We are now speaking, of course, of 
monumental and religious Art, the only things in which 
the Gothic is appropriate. In a domestic or homely 
sphere it always appears to be out of place and unsuited 
to the purpose. 

The Gothics were greater architects than the Greeks, 
in a way, but it would be idle to assert that they were as 
good sculptors; there is no reason, however, why the 
finest works should not be combined with the Gothic 
style, for they can be made quite compatible with it. 

Even the Florid style, which, from our dislike to it 
as somewhat debasing Art, we feel much inclined to 
stigmatize with the title of mannerism, is sometimes ad- 
missible ; in fact, must be acknowledge to be, under 
some circumstances, the most appropriate — for instance 
in the decoration of the theatre, the ball-room, and 
other places of amusement. Surely when so placed it is 



124 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

more in unison than any other with that elevation of the 
spirits which is supposed to pervade the scene. 

The severe, unaffected Classical style would be a 
damper on our enjoyment under such circumstances, 
when we are not looking coldly on at real life, but tak- 
ing, so to speak, a glance at it through a colored glass 
or our imagination. 

Shakespeare, in his poetic drama of "The Tempest," 
seems to give us a view of it in this florid style. He ele- 
vates by his poetical imagination the scenes he portrays, 
and so leads us away into a realm of ideality more 
florid, more enjoyable than the reality we are compelled 
every day to take part in. You must do the same 
with your art, or at any rate furnish your portion in 
that enjoyment, and you will do it best by bending it to 
the same feeling. 

It is under such influences that high and ornamental 
sculpture most frequently join hands together, and are 
present, not as real personages, or as representatives of 
particular ideas, but as decorations of a scene created 
for the transient pleasure of the moment. Your lines 
may now flow with greater freedom, your figures per- 
form their parts with less reserve than on other occa- 
sions, your style may in short be florid. It is here, if 
anywhere, that color may be introduced into your 
statues, as well as into the ornaments about them. The 
danger is of their becoming sensuous; but the refine- 
ment, whether of design or execution, which you will 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 125 

introduce, will keep that down in the same way as the 
great dramatist has done in the fairy tale I have just 
alluded to. There are scenes and characters in that 
which connect it with the lower features of humanity, 
and so preserve a relationship to the real, which no 
imaginative work, whether of Art or Literature, should 
be entirely without ; whilst there are others, the creation 
of poetic fancy, which serve to lift us upwards into the 
realms of ideality; and make us the better for the en- 
joyment we receive. You will say we are soaring into 
the region of rhodomontade and losing the practical; 
but we may tell you that you need not feel yourself so 
strictly bound by rule in this style as in the others ; your 
forms are not required to be so true to the modesty of 
Nature as they are generally ; they may be made more 
elective by a departure from truth, or at any rate an 
exaggeration of fact. With those proportions which 
Nature has given to different objects of her creation 
you may deal freely, altering them to suit your own 
; _ k rposes of expression or effect. We will put before 
you Cellini, as the highest example in this walk of Art. 
Strictly speaking he is an ornamentalist ; but he some- 
times attempts high Art, where there is often with him 
a lack of correct proportion — for instance, in his statue 
of Perseus, where the over ornamentation hardly hides 
from a practical eye the want of proper balance of parts. 
Sometimes, indeed, in his metal works he uses his free- 
dom as a license which serves the stvle to which his 



126 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

work belongs, and so answers the purpose he has in 
view ; he is rarely, if ever, quite natural, though always 
florid in his style, and always effective. 

It will be impossible in a work of this kind, to write 
at length on the various styles, so we will content our- 
selves with touching on some of those styles which seem 
to have been much in favor at certain periods. To go 
into this matter extensively would require several vol- 
umes of greater dimensions than the present one. 

As with all the arts, crafts and sciences, we get all 
our glimmerings from, or through the Egyptians, so 
everything pertaining to the earliest examples of furni- 
ture come to us from that source. 

Many people imagine that the habit of sitting down, 
as practiced in this country and Europe, is a universal 
human habit, old as the race itself, and in no way asso- 
ciated with civilization. Investigations, however, have 
shown that the habit is acquired, and marks the highest 
notch of civilization and advancement ; indeed, it is esti- 
mated that not more than 10 per cent of the human 
family practice sitting on the civilized plan. 

Men who do not sit have two attitudes for resting; 
women use one of their own. Squatting on the heel is 
favored in India and China. In this position the weight 
of the body falls upon the toes, and to keep the balance 
comfortably the arms must hang over the knees, the 
hands dangling. The cross-legged attitude is general 
from Siam eastward, through the Malay countries. In 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



127 



the jungle men crouch, the knees raised, the arms folded 
over them and the chin resting on the arm. The women 




Figure 62 

of that region rest upon the floor sideways, thus throw- 
ing the weight on the outer part of one thigh, not a 
very comfortable posture to a civilized Caucasian., 



128 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

As civilization advanced in Egypt the use of furni- 
ture became more and more necessary. First the rulers 
began with thrones and seats of honor for the kings 
and nobles; then the rich merchants followed, providing 
themselves with furniture less costly, perhaps, but equal- 
ly as useful as that owned and used by State officials. 
The working classes and the poor were doubtless con- 
tent to sit down on their mats of papyri stalks, under 
the shelter of their rough cabins of mud. The rich of 
the dynasties, dating from the twelfth to the thirtieth, 
furnished their houses with very costly furniture, which 
consisted principally of rich beds, or couches with their 
beds, or mattresses, pillows and cushions, and wooden 
head-rests, footstool stands, tables and chairs, both with 
high and low back; or folding stools, like the Greek 
okladias, boxes or chests for holding clothes and other 
objects. From the earliest period high-backed and 
other chairs were in use, and at the time of the eight- 
eenth and nineteenth dynasties were imported as tribute 
from Ethiopia. Pillows of stone, wood and other ob- 
jects were also of great antiquity, and are represented 
in coffins of the sixth and following dynasties. They 
exhibit a great variety of shape, consisting of a curved 
semi-elliptical portion, adapted to hold the back of the 
head, supported by a column or other contrivance rest- 
ing on a base or pedestal. For furniture, various woods 
were employed — ebony, acacia or soft cedar, sycamore 
and others of species not determined; ivory, both of 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 129 

the hippopotamus and the elephant, and used for inlay- 
ing, as also were glass pastes, and specimens of mar- 
quetry are not uncommon. In the paintings in the 
tombs gorgeous pieces of gilded furniture are depicted. 
For cushions and mattresses, linen cloth, feathers of 
water fowl and colored stuffs appear, to have been used, 
while seats have plaited bottoms of linen cord or tanned 
and dyed leather thrown over them. Sometimes the 
skins of panthers were used for the purpose. On the 
whole an Egyptian house was lightly furnished and not 
encumbered with so many articles as are in use at the 
present day. For carpets they used mats of plain fiber, 
on which children and servants sat, or rather squatted. 

The chest shown at Fig. 58 seems to have been a 
very popular piece of furniture, as numbers are found 
depicted on the tombs and monuments. The bedstead 
and ivory headrest shown in Fig. 59 were also common 
articles of furniture with the rulers and with the rich, 
and many of them were finely upholstered with hand- 
some and costly fabrics. 

The fragments of a chair shown in Fig. 60 — are 
still in existence, and preserved in the British Museum, 
and show the remains of the veritable chair used as a 
throne by Queen Hatasu, a royal lady who made things 
lively for a while in the valley of the Nile some 1600 
years before Christ and twenty-nine years before Moses. 
This is, so far as we know, the most venerable piece of 
wooden furniture in the world. There is in the Louvre, 



130 



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THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 131 

France, a metal chair, decorated and incrusted with 
mosaics, that is older by 400 years than the one ex- 
hibited. Hatasu's chair or throne, or rather what re- 
mains of it — as it is in a dilapidated condition and has 
to be secured with brass bands — is made of what ap- 
pears to be lignum-vitse, is of a dark color, like cocus 
wood, and is inlaid over all the carved portions with 
gold plates. The two sacred serpents, shown on the 
two uprights at the back, however, are not treated so, 
but, as the detail illustrates, with little silver rings sunk 
all over them ; probably a conventional rendering of the 
snake skin. 

The five articles of furniture exhibited in the group, 
Fig. 61, showing a stool, stand for a vase, workman's 
stool, head-rest and vase on a stand, are from photos 
of the originals in the British Museum. They are 
Egyptian examples and are more than 3000 years old. 
Nothing can be more suitable for its purpose than the 
"workman's stool." The seat is precisely like that of a 
modern kitchen chair (all wood), slightly concaved to 
promote the sitter's comfort, and supported by three 
legs curving outwards. This is simple, convenient and 
admirably adapted to long service. Besides these ex- 
amples, there are jn the museum several seats formed 
with cross legs on the principle of our common camp- 
stool, and all are well made and have the lower parts 
of their legs carved as heads of geese, with inlayings of 



132 



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Plate IV*- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 133 

ivory to assist the design and give richness to the exe- 
cution. 

There are in the various museums many articles of 
luxury and comfort taken from Egyptian tombs, which 
demonstrate the extraordinary state of civilization and 
culture attained by these ancient people, that aid us in 
forming a picture of their domestic habits. Boxes, 
chests, tables and shelves in great variety have been 
unearthed, "some inlaid with various woods and with 
little squares of bright turquoise blue pottery let in as a 
relief; others veneered with ivory; wooden spoons 
carved in most intricate designs, of which one, repre- 
senting a girl among lotus flowers, is a work of great 
artistic skill; boats of wood, head-rests and carved 
models of parts of houses and granaries, together with 
writing materials, different kinds of tools and imple- 
ments and quantities of personal ornaments and requi- 
sites." 

Indeed the more we know of the Egyptians the more 
w r e are led to believe that long before Greece or Rome 
were known they enjoyed a remarkably high state of 
civilization and learning, with all their accompanying 
advantages. 

A figure given (in group) exhibit two very old 
chairs and a couple of Egyptian chairmakers at work, 
with some of the tools and materials scattered about on 
the floor. Here we see a square, a couple of adzes, and 
a drill in the hands of one of the workmen, who is bor- 



J 34 



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THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 135 

ing a hole in the chair by using a bow to turn the drill. 
These tools are very much like the tools in use today. 
Several finished chair legs are seen on the wall. This 
carving on the walls of a tomb, was executed between 
two and three thousand years ago. 

Furniture used by the Chaldeans, the Assyrians, 
Babylonians, Hebrews and other old nations, was of 
similar type to the Egyptian, as may be seen by refer- 
ring to a number of illustrations shown, also examples 
of Greek and Roman furniture are given. 

Some of the chairs shown are fine examples, and both 
are constructed on Egyptian and other lines. Later 
styles, or rather examples of later styles, are shown in 
Figs. 19, 20, the coronation chair, 28, and others shown 
in the first chapter. 

The Gothic style in furniture began during the reign 
of Louis VIII, and St. Louis (Louis IX) — 1223-1270; 
the style growing out of the Byzantine style of Archi- 
tecture, and was introduced by the artists and crafts- 
men brought to France from Constantinople by the re- 
turning crusaders. 

The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had been re- 
markable for a general development of commerce ; mer- 
chants had traded extensively with the East, and had 
grown opulent, and their homes naturally displayed 
signs of wealth and comfort that in former times had 
been impossible to any but princes and rich nobles. 

Towards the fourteenth century, there was in high 



136 



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THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 137 

quarters a taste for high and rich colorings and we have 
the testimony of an old writer who describes the interior 
of the Hotel de Beheme, which, after being the resi- 
dence of several great personages, was given by Charles 
VI. in 1388 to his brother the Duke of Orleans. "In 
this palace was a room used by the Duke, hung with 
cloth of gold, embroidered with windmills. There were 
besides rich carpets with gold flowers, cushions of cloth 
of gold, and summer carpets of Arragon leather." 

As we approach the end of the fourteenth century we 
find canopies added to the "chairs," which were carved 
in oak and chestnut and sometimes elaborately gilded 
and picked out in color. The canopied seats were bulky 
and throne-like constructions, and were abandoned 
toward the end of the fifteenth century, for a somewhat 
smaller and less massive seat. 

The high-backed chair shown in Fig. 62 is a sample 
of this style. Chairs, tables, beds and fittings were all 
made in this style and the interiors were rich in carv- 
ings, massive but stiff and informal. Plate I, exhibits a 
chamber in this style of the period of Louis XI, which 
shows a bed and several pieces of furniture. Fig. 63 
shows a German chamber of a somewhat later date. 
The French carved bed with canopy, Fig. 64, is of the 
period of Louis XIV. It is an example that was much 
followed, and the fashion lasted well into the period of 
Louis the XVI. A gradual change in French furniture 
took place during the reign of Louis XVI, and the orna- 



138 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAIMER 




GERMAN RENAISSANCE. 

Plate VII 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 139 

mentation assumed the style as shown in Plate II. 
French furniture was continually changing in style, and 
we have early and late French, Louis Seize, and Em- 
pire styles, each of these having their changes, imita- 
tions and modifications. 

Gilt wood, Chinese lacquers and their imitations by 
means of the varnish to which Robert Martin gave his 
name, are the preferred materials. Bronze mountings, 
set in the panels, and cut out in highly elaborate pat- 
terns, decorate the cabinets of Cafneri. The marquetry 
work of Boulle, made to conform with the prevailing 
style is continued by the heirs of the celebrated work- 
man. 

The ornamentation that is peculiar to the style of 
Louis XV. modifies the old elements and introduces 
new ones. A narrow but very much lengthened acan- 
thus takes the place of the rich and broad acanthus of 
the Louis XIV. 

This new form becomes associated with shells, ro- 
caille, perforated stones. The development of the 
natural science, interest in which is manifested by the 
gathering of collections of shells, etc., has a share, to- 
gether with the popularity of Dresden China, in bring- 
ing about the triumph of the style rocaille. 

An interior of the style Louis XV. also includes the 
decorative Chinese fancies, the carved elephants of Caf- 
fieri's clocks; 'then the characters of Italian comedy, 
reminiscences of Watteau, and the little love sports met 



140 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 64 



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141 



with pretty much everywhere, in Tapestry, ceramic jew- 
elry, snuff-boxes, bon-bonnieres, fans, transom panels, 
screens, and the many quaint and curious fancies pe- 
culiar to that era. 




Figure 65 

The cabinets, Figs. 65 and 66, and carved walnut 
bed, Fig. 67, of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are 
good examples of the work of those periods and offer 
many suggestions to designers, carvers and workmen. 
The bed shown in Fig. 68, was used by Pope Pius VII, 
at Fontainbleau, and is rich in decoration and costly 
drapery. 



142 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 66 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 143 

Plate III shows a whole series of details in Louis 
Seize style, from which the cabinet-maker may garner 




Figure 67 

many good things for nearly all purposes. Fig. 69 
shows a cabinet in this style which is elaborately fin- 
ished and decorated with gold. It is a thing of beauty 



144 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

and was purchased for the museum at a cost of $7,500. 
The table shown at Fig. 70 is a fine specimen of the 
style Louis Seize and is beautifully carved. Fig. 71 
shows a good old-fashioned commode ornamented lav- 
ishly with gilt, bronze and inlay ; the Louis Seize chairs 
illustrated in Fig. 72 are good examples of the period. 
They are finished in blue and gold and are very dainty 
pieces of furniture. These illustrations are drawn from 
photos of the originals now in the Cluny museum. A 
most beautiful piece of work is a little ebony cabinet, 
Fig. J2> — now m tne Kensington museum, which was 
made by the celebrated French cabinet-maker, Boulle. 
It is beautifully inlaid in the most exquisite designs and 
made nearly two hundred years ago. 

Boulle, not to mention many others of the earlier 
period, was an artist ; he conceived his own designs, he 
drew them out (the patent is given him in his name not 
only as a cabinet-maker, but as an architect and sculp- 
tor), he executed everything with his own hands; he 
was a chaser, engraver, and gilder ; he was, as we see, 
a man of cultivated tastes into the bargain." When we 
add to his merit as a designer, and a delicate appreciator 
of the work of others, his merit as a good workman 
whose productions, without need of repair, are as stout 
in the present day, after two hundred years of use as 
they were the day they were made, it may be fairly con- 
ceded, even by the sternest rigorist, that Andre Boulle 
worked in what is understood as' the true spirit. Not 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



145 




^^jfe &^ 



Figure 68 



146 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

only in its construction, but in every feature, in the 
choice of the materials, in the chasing and gilding and 
the marquetry, his work will be found to be of the most 
honest kind, very different to the modern rubbish that 
passes under the name, where false tortoise shell, made 
of horn or gelatine ; false mother-of-pearl, box or horn 
instead of ivory ; brass or even zinc lacquered ornament 
tacked on to the ill-made joinery usurp the place of true 
work, whose only fault was that it was produced in a 
period when the traditions of art were on the decline. 
When Boulle used wood it was ebony, which the cabinet 
makers, his successors, on the plea of its difficulty in 
working, in taking the glue or varnish — Boulle never 
used varnish — and other reasons, replaced with stained 
pear-wood. In the choice of his woods Boulle showed 
the extremest care, and one of his severest blows was 
his loss, by the fire that destroyed his collection of 
prints, of a qauntity of rare woods which he had, we 
learn from the inventory he made at the time, long 
stored by to season. The bronze he used was honestly 
chiselled and chased and gilt, not lacquered, and each 
ornament was a design not stamped out. 

The secrets of Boulle's skill may be said to have died 
with their inventor, for though the traditions were con- 
tinued, the sobriety and the grandiose style of the master 
will be found to be sadly wanting in all the work of his 
imitators. So much was this recognized that, through- 
out the last century, in all the sale catalogues the works 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



147 




Figure 69 



148 



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by Boulle himself are conspicuously marked, more than 
one collector made it his specialty to gather specimens 
of the great cabinet maker's work. 

Boulle died at the age of eighty-two (February 29, 
1732) at his house in the Louvre, and was buried in the 




Figure 70 

neighboring church of Saint Germain L'Auxerrois, leav- 
ing two sons to combine, only in name it is true, the 
traditions which he had in a measure positively created. 
One of the sons, employed at the Sevres manufactory, 
was, it would appear, the first to introduce, in the decor- 
ation of furniture, the use of porcelain. 

Plate IV shows a couple of tables of the style of 
Louis XVI, which contain a number of very useful sug- 
gestions, suggestions that will be utilized in the manu- 



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149 




150 



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facture of modern Furniture, on similar lines, by some 
little modifications. 

During the Marie Antoinette period, the most extrav- 
agant furniture was made and the most extravagant 




Figure 72 



prices were paid for it, and some very handsome speci- 
mens were turned out. The little writing table shown 
in Fig. 74, was specially designed and made for the 
Queen, and cost a very large sum of money. This table 
is now in England and was bought some years ago for 
$37,000, an enormous amount of money for so small a 
piece of furniture. An English writer who was at the 
sale, in speaking of it, says : "It amused me to notice 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



151 



that it required a special attendant to guard this little 
specimen, so many were crowding round to inspect it. 




Figure 73 



It was literally mobbed as I tried to get a glimpse of it 
for my note book, and the adjectives showered upon 1; 
by the upper ten were the most expressive I have ever 
heard applied to furniture. It was oblong in shape, with 
a drawer fitted with inkstand, writing-slide, and shelf 
beneath an oval medallion of a trophy, and flowers on 
the top, and trophies with four medallions round the 



J 52 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



sides. This was stamped J. Riesner, and branded un- 
derneath with cypher of Marie Antoinette and Garde 
Meuble de la Reine. This really beautiful article of fur- 




Figure 74 



niture was exhibited in 1862 at the South Kensington 
Loan Exhibition. Three thousand guineas was the first 
bid for it, but it soon ran up to 4,500 guineas, at which 
price some dispute arose as to whose bid it was. This 
was settled by $25,000 being offered, and the bidding 
continued till the price reached $30,500, when, amid 
much applause, it became the property of Mr. Wer- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



153 




Figure tS 



154 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

theimer. I anticipated that this little gem would realize 
a large sum, but the amount obtained for it is certainly 
fabulous. I can say, however, that the beauty of the 
workmanship must be seen to be believed." 

Fig. 75 illustrates a bed introduced by Queen Marie 
Antoinette. This bed became quite popular for a time, 
but ran out of vogue during the revolution after which 
the Empire Style was introduced, when beds were spe- 
cially designed for warriors, judges, statesmen and suc- 
cessful leaders; many of the beds were heaps of silly 
ornament and cumberous and rich draperies. This phase 
of the Empire style did not last long, however, but 
gave place to a more sensible practice of construction 
and ornamentation. The two Plates, V and VI, show 
details and ornamentation in the better days of the 
Empire style. Plate V showing some of the best ex- 
amples of the period. 

The French revolution brought with it many good 
things — as well as bad, and it was really a blessing 
in disguise in many ways inasmuch as it cleared the way 
for better things among which may be mentioned the 
Empire style as represented in the illustrations and 
Plates shown herewith. 

Among the many decorations in this style, quivers, 
torches, and armorial trophies were freely made use of, 
and this tendency to make ornament subservient to the 
general form, of which it should always be only the 
complement and accessory, so far from diminishing in 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



155 




mrn^m * 




~*m 



Chippendale. 
Plate VIII 



156 



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the next age, became accentuated, as the following 
illustrations of "Empire" will demonstrate. It had 
forced itself into fashion, and opened up fresh fields 




Fififiire 76 



and pastures new for the courageous decorator. Its 
promoters had gone to draw inspiration from the phil- 
osophical world of antiquity, and they studiously at- 
tempted to revive antique rules, traditions and cus- 
toms, many of which were inconsistent with modern 
life. The broad-backed chair (Fig. 76) makes a fine 
looking, comfortable seat. Cleverly hollowed out to 
catch the back and support the shoulders, it proffers the 
acme of comfort, without, at the same time, being stuffy. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



157 



Passing to Fig. yy, we find a form of couch which 
was at one time very popular in this country. It re- 
minds one of the old "high-low" designs which used to 
be the fashion in the "early fifties," and there is no 
doubt that this choice of a resting pad proves a comfort 
to the sitter who is dainty in the matter of position. 




Figure 77 



This design, which is without a back, is evidently for 
use rather than display. Before passing from this 
design we cannot help noticing the increased oppor- 
tunities which it gives to the chair or settee frame maker, 
as he has been too much in the habit of hiding his work 
with ostentatious upholstery. The small table (Fig. 78) 
is for decorative rather than useful purposes. The de- 
sign, if well executed, adds unusual classic dignity to 
the center of a room, or as a choice corner-piece. This 
belongs to the class erstwhile known as the "loo" table, 
and has been in the background of late years. It is 



158 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

still in vogue in its larger forms as a dining-table, and 
those who still possess one will enthusiastically tell you 
that for a small dinner party there is nothing compar- 




Figure 78 

able with our circular friend. The outward bend and 
consequent placing of one's neighbors right and left, in 
a position where conversation is enjoyable, renders the 
round table unrivalled for the party of six or eight. 

There is a sturdiness about German furniture, that 
does not obtain in French or in the furniture of other 
Latin races, as may be seen in the examples shown on 
Plate VII, where five pieces of German Renaissance are 
illustrated. True, these pieces are not so dainty, or so 
exquisitely beautiful as much of the French work, yet, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



159 



-©OS 






*&■ 




18 Chippendale. 
Plate IX 



160 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



they have a dignity of their own, and the carvings are 
stronger and more vigorous than those of French pro- 




Figure 79 

duction. The Frontispiece of this work shows a very 
fine example of German work, and is quite modern, both 
in style and construction. 

The German bed shown at Fig. 79 is quite a solid 
looking piece of furniture, but has an inviting and com- 
fortable appearance. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



161 




Figure 81 



162 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




The two old German chairs 
shown at Figs. 80 and 81, 
are comfortable even if they 
are heavily built and pon- 
derous looking. They are 
substantial and strong. The 
little table, Fig. 82, is char- 
acteristic of old time German 
work. The bed shown in Fig. 
83 is drawn from a photo 
taken of the bed used by Na- 
poleon, and his consort, the 
unfortunate Josephine. It is said to be a very com- 
fortable bed to rest in and there are many like it still 
used in France. 

The sturdy old chair shown in Fig. 84, is from Spain. 
In form, the chair is of course, common enough; but 
a new idea may be gathered from the upholstery. It 
consists of stout velvet, stuffed properly with feathers, 
and quilted after down-quilt fashion. It is fastened to 
the walnut framing with "extra size" brass studs, and 
some neglige trellis fringe is added to finish. It seems 
to me that such quilted upholstery might be applied to 
many modern chairs where shallow stuffing is desirable. 
If hair is substituted for feathers, a comfortable and 
pleasing result could be obtained without the stuffiness 
and fragility of bottoming. Altogether this old chair 
looks commanding as the center-piece in the large glass 
case in which it is preserved. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



163 



7 



* 



US V- 



--■-;-; 




•* > 




- C, ... 


"r ' '—-] 


: '\_ 


('■■ ■' '' ■ -) 


ioiom 


f^WM 











J L 



ISHERAT OMj 

Plate X 




164 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

We may now safetly turn to English, and American 
furniture, and its makers, of the eighteenth, and the 
latter part of the seventeenth centuries, which were the 
periods of the most artistic work. In the earliest work, 
the lingering of Gothic and early Renaissance principles 
of construction gave a respose of line and appearance 
of stability and permanence often lacking in French 




Figure 83 

furniture of the same time. French eighteenth-century 
furniture, though in reality very substantially built, is 
apt to have a fragile appearance, and every one knows 
that the grace and freedom of its curves are only to 
be had at the cost of a considerable loss of strength. In 
keeping to simpler and more rigid forms the English and 
American makers were preserving good traditions, and 
if their ornamental systems were seldom appropriate 
or in pure taste, at least good workmanship and care- 
ful finish cannot be denied them. 

Among the accompanying designs of furniture, the 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



165 




Figure 84 



large bookcase, Fig. 85, as will be seen by the plan, is 
very simple in construction ; but what a hotch-potch the 
designer has made of Gothic-looking clustered columns, 
false pediment with olive mouldings, and classic 



166 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Plate XI 



THE FRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



167 





Figure 85 



168 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



aeroteria. The other bookcase, Fig. 86, solid shelves 
alternating with closed cupboards, is again of sensible 
general design; but, though its proportions are much 




Figure 86 

better, there is a mixture of ornamental motives which 
strikes the eye as incongruous. The pretty rococo crest- 
ings, to which, if cast in brass or gilt, no one need object 
as a finish for the top of the piece, are still not in keep- 
ing with the severe geometrical tracery of the panels 
and sash lines. The two end cupboards especially are 
out of all harmony with the center form of the pedi- 
ments. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



169 



In less elaborate pieces of furniture, however, a hap- 
pier result was often arrived at. 

The two night tables by Ince and Mayhew, Fig. 89, 
show, that to the right the pure French style; that to 




Figure 87 



the left the English taste in an uncommonly straight- 
forward example. Nothing has here been borrowed of 
the French but its lightness and finish. The geometrical 
tracery is not put out of countenance by the very dis- 
creet introduction of rococo foliage scrolls at the feet 
and supporting the raised parts of the slight rail. One 
feels how much more comfortable an object it is than 



170 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Plate Xll 

its neighbor, which, though really as soundly built, has 
an air of being in full dress, and not to be familiarly 
treated. The supper Canterbury and stand by Sheraton 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



171 



are likewise simple and of a sturdy elegance. It is in 
such pieces as these that we have the best work by the 
best workmen. A father and son, under the firm title 
of Win. Loyd & Son, Boston, Mass., made a lot of work 
of this kind before the revolution, and many pieces of 
this work found their way into Philadelphia and the 
south as far as Georgia ; and was quite common in the 




New England States, New York, and New Jersey. 
Odd pieces are occasionally found in some of the old 
colonial houses. This work may be known by the two 
letters L and B, which are usually found burned in some 
out of the way place on the specimen. The letters were 
rudely cut in the brand. 

Chippendale the greatest English designer and cabinet 
maker revolutionized the styles of furniture and in- 
troduced many new features that seemed to take hold 



172 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



of the people and stay by them, and his contemporaries 
and immediate followers kept the public favor by de- 
signing on lines somewhat similar to those of the mas- 
ter. Along with the meritorious things Chippendale 
designed there came a lot of stuff that was frivolous and 




Figure 89 



almost absurd and showed how the artist must have 
been lost in the struggle after novelties. His imitators 
were as faulty in many of their productions, and Shera- 
ton, Heppelwhite, Mayhew, Ince, and even the Adam 
brothers, left much work behind them that had but 
little merit. I do not wish it to be inferred that I am 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



173 




^. 



1 

■v 



I 



I 



OT W 



© 



P 



174 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

inveighling against the artistic merits of Chippendale 
and his coadjutors, I only speak of his shortcomings as 
a reminder,- that even Homer himself sometimes nods. 
The chairs and table shown in Fig. 90 are fine ex- 
amples of the masters' work and are really handsome 
designs, and paragons of good construction and faith- 
ful workmanship. 




Figure 91 

We show two plates — Nos. VIII and IX of Chippen- 
dale designs, which, with what we have shown in the 
foregoing pages, will enable our readers to recognize 
this master's work at sight. Plate VIII, illustrates some 
of his best work, especially the chair backs shown at 
11 and 12. The other backs shown 1, 3 and 9 are not 
so chaste but are favorites with some people. The de- 
signs shown on Plate IX, are very clever, and in some 
instances, beautiful but are not by any means up to the 
best standard of Chippendale's work. 

Perhaps on the whole, Sheraton, was as popular as 
any of the great English masters, and in our opinion, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



175 



justly so, for his work was, in many instances, as chaste 
in design, as finely finished and much more substantial 
in construction than the work turned out by Chippen- 
dale or Heppelwhite. Sheraton succeeded Chippendale 




Figure 92 



in fashionable esteem, and was a more sober and elegant 
designer. His pieces never offend the eye, but, on the 
other hand, they are not so characteristic as those of 
his less artistic predecessor. The double chair, Fig. 91, 
covered with a piece of Aubusson tapestry, is in his 
style, though it may not be of his make. He was very 
ingenious in inventions of the sort, and numerous con- 
trivances for getting double service out of chairs and 
tables, are ascribed to him. The sofa, Fig. 92, is an ex- 
cellent example of the same taste, for the alliance of 
straight lines with refined curves, on which his fame 
chiefly rests; indeed, reticence in ornament was his 
study. 



176 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



The sofa shown in Fig. 93, is a dainty work both in 
design and finish, and is a typical Sheraton. The two 




Figure 93 



settles shown at Fig. 94 and 95, are Sheraton's work 
and are good examples of his style on furniture of this 




Figure 94 



kind. They are evidently derived from the sofa of the 
period, diminished in size and robbed of its back. 

The Sheraton table (Fig. 96) is a beautiful specimen 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



177 




Plate XHI 



178 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



of its class, well worthy of reproduction, notwithstand- 
ing that the center-table is at present out of favor. The 
diagram, Fig. 97, explains the somewhat unusual con- 
struction, and shows how the problem of drawers in a 
circular plan has been solved. The fictitious quadrant- 




Figure 95 



drawers are really little cupboards, as is indicated in 
the working drawing. That any manufacturer to-day 
would invest the labor needed to make this table proper- 
ly, is perhaps, doubtful; yet the elements of its con- 
struction deserves study and adaptation. 

The little table, and the arm-chair shown at Fig. 
98, are fine chaste specimens of the Sheraton period and 
could well afford to be imitated. If space allowed we 
would very much like to publish three or four plates of 
Sheraton's designs, but we have already devoted more 
space than we first intended, so in this case we offer one 
Plate, X, which shows up quite a number of Sheraton's 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



179 



best designs ; and these, along with the figured illustra- 
tions, will, we think, make sufficient exhibits for one 
purpose. 




Figure 96 



Plates XI and XII show some fine examples of 
Heppelwhite's work. These are choice specimens of this 
style, and show up some very good work. Plate XII 
exhibits six sideboards, four pedestals, and a tea chest 
by Heppelwhite. The dimensions of the sideboards 



180 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



are :— Length, from 5^ ft. to 7 ft. ; height, 3 ft. ; depth, 
28 in. to 32 in. The notes referring to Nos. 5, 8, 9, 
and 1 1 state that "the ornaments to the fronts . . . 
may be carved, painted, or inlaid with various colored 
woods." The pedestals were made of the same height 
as the sideboards, were generally about 16 in. or 18 in. 




Figure 97 

square, and were often surmounted by vases from 2 ft. 
to 2 ft. 3 in. high. The ornamentation of the tea chest 
may, according to Heppel white's book, either be inlaid, 
or "painted and varnished." 

Heppelwhite, while he did not reach the height in 
public esteem that Chippendale and Sheraton did, his 
work was much sought for and enormous prices were 
paid for examples, and to-day, when fashion has 
changed somewhat, well authenticated examples com- 
mand prices that place them beyond the reach of or- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 181 

dinary purses. Cases are quoted where a single chair 
brought as much as 200' dollars. The designs which 
we illustrate could, probably, be reproduced for one- 




Fisrure 98 



third of that sum, and with the carving omitted for still 
less. That is assuming that costly wood, like rosewood 
or mahogany, is exacted, and providing for the very 
best workmanship; quite as artistic results may be ob- 
tained as in those of the originals. 

The most notable difference between the chairs of 
Heppelwhite and Chippendale is that the latter affected 
the large square backs and ultra-French details never 



182 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



to the taste of Heppelwhite, who in his own book says : 
''Our idea of the useful, in such articles as are generally 
serviceable in real life, is to unite elegance and utility, 
and blend the useful with the agreeable"; this as he 
elsewhere points out, was better attained by allowing 




Figure 99 



English taste and workmanship full play, than alien 
styles too literally with many anacronisms. The four 
Heppelwhite arm chairs shown in Fig. 99 are fair 
samples of the style and show in them, the peculiar 
characteristics of the Heppelwhite treatment. 

The general dimensions of Heppelwhite's chairs are 
19 or 20 inches for the width of the front; for the 
depth of the seat and length of seat frame, 17 inches 
each, and the total height about 3 ft. 1 in. He especially 
prided himself on the painted "japanned" decoration in 
his actual productions ; yet in writing he disclaimed the 
mere novelty of such fugitive decorations and most 
strongly recommended the more durable method of in- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



183 




Plate XIV 



184 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



laying, although he confesses the former was pretty 
enough while it lasted. This divergence between theory 
and practice has always ruled in furniture, for, chosen 




Fisrure 100 



solely for its fashion and appearance by most buyers, 
no absurd innovation has failed to find a responsive 
purchaser. 

Perhaps, of all the styles of furniture known, there 
is not one of them that appeals to the refined artistic 
feelings more than that evolved by the Adam Brothers 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 18? 

— Richard and James — who, in their early youth, be- 
came recognized as masters of elegant design. At this 
date, it is practically impossible to obtain a copy of 
their works, and to look them over Students are obliged 
to go to some National Library. There are copies we 
believe in the Lennox Library, New York, but we do 
not know of any other original work of theirs in the 
United States or even of copies of them. Examples of 
the work of these two men are scarcely ever found in 
the market, but when such is the case, the demand for 
fhem is so great that ridiculously high prices are paid 
for their possession. The efforts of these designers 
were secured altogether by royalty and the Nobility, 
and this accounts largely for the scarcity of examples. 

Plates XIII and XIV, show a few examples of work 
in this style. Plate XIII shows a number of details 
for furniture and general house finish. Plate XIV 
shows a portion of an octagon Boudoir in this style, 
with several pieces of furniture and fittings. This style 
is better known as "The Adam's Classic Style," and is 
very beautiful indeed. 

With this (Plate XIV) we will close this essay on 
"style," as those we have mentioned cover pretty nearly 
all those various modes of construction and decoration 
worthy of the name of "style." 

We have not said much of the "Gothic Style" for this 
is not supposed to be employed — only for church work, 
though sometimes it is made use of in dwellings for 



186 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the clergy, or similar purposes. We may have more to 
say of "Gothic," later on. The "New Art" or "Art 
Nouveau," which was in such vogue a few years ago, 
was simply a "fad," and is now dead, and properly so — 
and is not likely to be even resurrected. We devote one 
Plate, XV, to this fad, so that posterity may have some 
idea as to what "Art Nouveau" was, "once upon a 
time." 



L'ART NOUVEAU. 

Methought I had a curyous dreame, though, certes, I 

doe wot 
That thynges are seldome what they seeme, whether in 

dreams or not ; 
Yet I dyd see soe vyvydly what I wyll eke rehearse, 
I wyst some lesson there must be yn thys, my humble 

verse. 

Yt soe befell upon a daye ye desygn I'd conceyve, 
I drew yt not for Art, buy paye, my fortune to ret rye ve ; 
I took yt to a fact'ry wyght, syth he was kynd to me, 
I thought he eke yn kyndness myght some meryt yn yt 
see. 

Yet whyle he lookt wyth curyous eye my spyryts 'gan 

to synk, 
When he upset quyte suddenly ye bottle of black ynk; 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 187 

Yt tryckled down ye desygn sketch yn streamlets long 

and deepe 
Ere blottying paper I could fetch, and I was fayne to 

weepe. 

But he, thys knowen fact'ry wyght, exclaimed, "I have 

yt now 
Thys accidente has thrown ye lyght, yt eke has shown 

me how 
To make ye fortune for ye, boy — come to my happy 

breaste ; 
I chortle yn my newe-found joye, of golde thys ys a 

neste !" 

Effsoones, he bade me goe my waye, with conge cour- 
teous, 

And ever synce that fateful daye I've been vyctoryous; 

For I have gotte ye piles of cash, of gold ye goodly sto ; 

Some people saye my desygn's trash — I call yt l'Art 
Nouveau. 

"The Mission fad, is nearly as unartistic as the "Art 
Nouveau" and because of its easy construction, is likely 
to become more popular. This should be called "The 
carpenter style," for every carpenter having a fair 
knowledge of his trade, should be able to make almost 
any kind of "Mission Furniture." This style has no 
Artistic merit other than its simplicity and honesty. 



188 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



For some purposes, the furniture 'made in this style be- 
comes quite suitable and appropriate. 




AN ORIENTAL ROOM 



Figure 101 



On plate XV, a number of picturesque examples of 
"Swiss work" is shown. We offer these examples be- 
cause of their artistic features, and their appropriateness 
for articles of furniture for sea or lakeside cottages, 
or bungalows. All these articles shown are easily made 
and as easily kept clean if left in a natural condition. 

Fig. ioo shows an old Scandinavian choir which ex- 
hibits good solid workmanship. Fig. 101 shows a room 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



189 







PICTURESQUE EXAMPLES OF SWISS WORK. 



Plate XV 



190 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



fitted up in oriental style with a few pieces of oriental 
furniture shown where some idea as to the shape and 
style of decoration of such furniture may be gleaned. 
Fig. 1 02, shows an ebony 'Koran" holder, from 




Figure 102 



Algiers. This is a beautiful piece of work, the inlaying 
all being done in pearl and ivory. 

Fig. 103, shows an old Italian chair. This is quite 
ornate, but is doubtless, very comfortable. 

The chairs shown in Fig. 104, are of old German 
type and are, without doubt, a pair of cosy, comfortable 
chairs. The woodwork on them seems to be ash, but is 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



191 



dark with age. The stiff prim looking chair shown in 
Fig. 105, is of old Dutch parentage, and has a stately, 
if not a lordly appearance. 




Ficure 103 



Fie. 106, shows another old Dutch chair, with cab- 
riole legs. This is rather a pretentious affair. The 
Italian chair shown at Fig. 107 is of late Italian Re- 
naissance style and is overloaded with unnecessary and 



192 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



193 



frivolous carvings. It is a comfortable chair to sit in 
but is unwieldly and ponderous. Fig. 108, exhibits a 
neat German chair suitable for a library, den or even 
a hall. The carving on it, is chaste and excellently 
wrought. 

The little writing table shown at Fig. 109 is one of 





Figure 104 

the most dainty pieces of furniture in existence. It was 
probably made by Oeban or Riesner and shows the 
most exquisite workmanship. As a mere matter of 
value it would probably fetch about thrice its weight 
in gold. It is throughout a model of the finest art work- 
manship, within and without; the beautiful marquetry 
panels ; the elaborately chased metal mounts ; the choice 
little porcelain requisites might each form the subject 
of a special essay. The table has only to be seen to be 
coveted. We are convinced that nothing we have seen 
of this description before or after, can compare in ele- 
gance and beauty with this little escritoire, once used 
by Marie Antoinette. 



194 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



The table shown in Fig. no, is German, and has a 
massive characteristic look, it is intended for library 
purposes. Fig. 1 1 1 shows a work table made for the 





Figure 105 



Figure 106 



ill-fated Marie Antoinette and is considered a gem in its 
way and has a value far beyond the reach of ordinary 
mortals. 

The table shown in Fig. 112, is in Mahogany and 
was executed for the war department, Washington. 
D. C. It is a fine specimen of American workmanship. 
It was made in Boston, Mass. The dainty little writing 
desks shown in Figs. 113 and 1 14, are of French manu- 
facture of the period of Marie Antoinette, and were 
the forerunners of many of the present beautiful writ- 
ing desks that are being made now by the thousands in 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



195 




Figure 107 

some of our Cabinet factories. They are worth imitat- 
ing as they contain many features of beauty and good 
taste. 

Stepping from chairs and tables to cabinets we have 
a large field to gather from, but it is not our intention 



196 



THE PRACTICAL CAEINET MAKER 




Figure 108 




Figure 109 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



197 




198 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 111 

to deal at length with these articles, so a few examples 
must suffice. The Cabinet — or Armoire, as it is called 
in French — shown in Fig. 115 is said to be one of the 
finest pieces of woodwork in the world. It was designed 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



199 




200 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



by Berain, and executed by Boulle, for Louis XIV. 
The delicacy and beauty of the coloring of the inlaid 
brass work, in metal of two tints, the boldness of the 
arabesque work, and the fine proportions and unusual 




Figure 113 



size of the cabinet, entitles it to the place of honor 
awarded it. 

The German cabinet shown in Fig*. 116, is a very 
fine example of workmanship, and nearly equals the 
French work in Artistic merit. The cabinet shown at 
Fig. 117, is not given for its beauty, but because of the 
usefulness, and combined purposes. It is in Queen 
Anne style and may prove suggestive, if nothing more. 

The two cabinets shown at Figs. 118 and 119, show 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 201 



two very fine cabinets well suited to receive curios and 
artistic trinkets. They are artistically designed. 

Wall, or hanging cabinets, are very useful articles 
of furniture, and designs for them are numerous — 




Figure 114 



many of which are good — but we give a few herewith, 
which we think possess several good features. The two 
designs shown at Fig. 120 are very simple but very 
effective. The same may be said of the three designs 
shown in Fig. 121. These latter may be used for 
cabinets to hang on a flat wall, or for corner cabinets. 



202 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 115 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 203 

SYNOPSIS OF STYLES. 

The Gothic style followed the Romanesque or round- 
arched. In France and England it developed towards 
the end of the twelfth century. In this country the 
Decorated Gothic was the second stage (during the 
fourteenth century), and the Perpendicular Gothic 
followed in the fifteenth. 

The Moorish or Saracenic developed in the eighth 
century. It was the style of the Mohammedans. A 
feature of the style is its extraordinary geometrical 
combinations. The Alhambra (Granada), built in the 
thirteenth century, is considered the most perfect speci- 
men of architecture in this style. 

Francis I. belongs to the Early French Renaissance 
( 1 515-1549). It is freely ornamented Gothic, develop- 
ing under Italian influence. Its feature is a minuteness 
of detail. The palace of Fontainebleau was built in this 
style by Francis I. 

Henry II. (Middle French Renaissance), who fol- 
lowed Francis L, developed the existing style along 
lines of greater purity, more closely resembling the 
original Italian. Many of the details in this style 
are applicable to modern requirements. 

Henri IV. brings us to the period of the Late French 
Renaissance ( 1 589-1610). A study of the illustrations 
following will clearly show the tendency of the time, 
preparing the way for the magnificence of the Louis 
XIV. style (treated later). 



204 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 116 

Louis XIV. ( 1 643-1 715). Magnificence in decora- 
tive designing. The era of Chas. le Brun, Andre 
Chas. Boulle, Jean Berain, Jean Le Pautre, and Daniel 
Marot. 

The Regency (171 5- 1723). The period during the 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 205 

minority of Louis Quinze. Elaborate detail is notice- 
able. 

Louis XV. (1723-1774), Rococo period. The lead- 
ing men of the time are Watteau, Nicholas Pineau, 
Jacques Caffieri, Jules Aurele Meissonier, Jacques 
Blondel, Denizol, Chas. Cressent, Oeben, Tessier, and 
Martin (originator of Vernis-Martin panels). 

Louis XVI. (1774-1792-), Era of daintiness and 
grace. Rococo ornament suppressed. The boudoir 
supersedes the salon. The leading men were Gouthiere, 
David Roentgen, and Riesner. 

The Empire was a return, under Napoleon, to the 
classic styles of Greece and Rome. Details include 
decorated cornices, caryatides, pilasters, etc. 

The English Renaissance was introduced at the be- 
ginning of the Sixteenth Century. The Elizabethan 
was its "golden age." The details on Page 121 are 
from the chimney-piece in the library at Holland House, 
the fretwork is from Audley End, and the carved panel 
is at the South Kensington Museum. 

Chippendale (1754) needs little comment. His de- 
signs include French details, and also show signs of 
Chinese influence. 

Sheraton ( 1751) is too well known to need descrip- 
tion. The details given in this style are illustrative 
of all phases of his work. 

Heppel white (1789), though often closely on Shera- 



206 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 117 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



207 




208 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

ton's lines, has a beauty of his own. Louis Seize in- 
fluence is very apparent in this style. 

Adam (1773) details are architectural, the furniture 
of the Brothers Adam being chiefly constructed to har- 
monize with the buildings in which it was to be used. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



209 






210 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

PRACTICAL WORK. 

In a simple treatise it is quite impossible to convey- 
any adequate idea of the art of cabinet-making. So 
much could be said that it is most difficult to know 
what to leave out, and however fully this subject may 
be enlarged upon, the broad fact that but one-half has 
been told must remain. Further, a budding cabinet- 
maker will learn more during the first twelve months 
of his apprenticeship than all the text-books in the 
country can teach him. The old Roman motto, Ez- 
perientia docet, is truer to-day than ever. Experience 
has been, and will be, the best teacher ; but just as it is 
possible to start in life with better prospects upon the 
solid foundations laid by one's forebears, so by the 
aid of a few practical suggestions may a youth be 
helped upward on the ladder of perfection. The cab- 
inet-maker must always strive after excellence. There 
is absolutely no room for men who are only half- 
masters of their craft ; the net result of incompetence is 
a general leveling of the highest to the least efficient, 
a diminution of the rate of wages, and a disastrous 
lowering of the quality of work. The various styles 
of workmanship should incite the cabinet trade of to- 
day to patient and thoughtful work. It may be urged — 
and possibly truly — that these master-pieces of which 
we speak were not the daily product of the age which 
produced them. That inferior work was then produced 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



211 





212 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

may be admitted; but the mere fact that time has 
wrought its destruction should be sufficient evidence 
that this class of work is not such as the twentieth- 
century cabinet-maker should imitate. 

And here one word to the journeyman of to-day. 
The apprentice working under your superintendence 
will be exactly as you make him. Men are copyists 
ever, and youth is the most impressionable period. See 
to it, then, that your work be such as the novice tread- 
ing in your footsteps may safely follow. And let the 
apprentice benefit by his master's experience, commenc- 
ing where the latter leaves off, and thus raising the 
handicraft to a higher level of excellence. The only 
true way to success is that the heart be in the work; 
toiling not merely for the "standard wage," nor creat- 
ing a piece of work only to "sell/' but to last. 

Just as to-morrow is the child of to-day, so is the 
journey-man the fulfilment of the apprenticeship. The 
groundwork of early days is the foundation upon which 
the after-work stands, and if the first be faulty then is 
there but inefficiency hereafter. One word as to the 
influence of trades-unionism upon the cabinet trade — 
it has its strong and weak points. On the one hand 
it demands, and rightly, from the master a standard rate 
of wage, which is beneficial insomuch ;that it puts all 
union shops on the same level, and prevents that "cut- 
ting" policy which is alike disastrous to good work and 
sound finance. On the other hand it gives no guarantee 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 213 

of efficiency in the worker ; good and bad are linked in 
one union, with the result that the least efficient are 
often out of work and maintained at the expense of 
their more skilled brothers. The remedy for this seems 
to lie here : let no man be made a member until he has 
passed through a satisfactory apprenticeship, and 
proved himself to be thoroughly acquainted with his 
trade, and capable of honestly earning the wage de- 
manded; then would the term "union man" be under- 
stood to mean skill and efficiency, and be as proud a 
possession of the man earning it as a degree to a college 
graduate. 

Possibly it may be thought that the proceeding lines 
have savoured too much of the ethics of labor — of 
work in its highest and ideal form — rather than of the 
practical teaching of a competing age. But there is a 
danger that in the mad rush for cheap and badly manu- 
factured furniture the true constructive art may be lost, 
and a race of men produced wedded to one job, year 
in and year out, and turning out work bearing neither 
the stamp of individuality nor the spirit of good work- 
manship. 

Where a draughtsman is not employed, the usual 
method of setting out work is to make a full-size detail 
from the scale-drawing supplied.. This is done most 
conveniently upon 36-inch lining-paper strained upon 
a board, say 7 ft. x 4 ft. This size will be found to be 
large enough for most jobs, which need only be drawn 



214 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




^. *. *: *-^^ 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 215 

in the majority of cases to the center line, thus show- 
ing half the width of the job, the other half being a re- 
peat. The thickness-sections, for the sake of clearness, 
may be put in with blue or red pencil. Having accom- 
plished this, the next proceeding will be to take off the 
drawing the various sizes of the several pieces of wood, 
allowing sufficient margin for finishing to the net sizes, 
and for the length of tenons, &c. Many of the small 
pieces can be obtained from the "scrap"-room, where 
all sorts of ends, strips, &c, are stored in their respective 
classes, thus saving the cutting of a large board for the 
purpose of an odd rail or so, which might render it use- 
less by reason of a corner having been cut away. 

Tools. — The trade of to-day is so much the product 
of machine labor, that in a fully-equipped shop, where 
furniture is made to "stock" designs, the manual work 
is little more than that of fitting together the various 
parts. It is, however, still necessary that the craftsman 
should be fully acquainted with the use of the tools 
usually associated with the cabinet-maker's bench. The 
following list includes all those commonly required, but 
special tools may be necessary in certain cases : 

1 Folding Rule, 2 or 3 feet. 

2 Hammers (1 Bench and 1 Framing). 
1 Mallet. 

1 pair of Pincers. 

3 Screwdrivers, 4, 8, and 15 inches. 



216 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

3 Bradauls. 

3 Gimlets. 

i Brace and Bits, A to i 1 /* inch. 

2 Marking Gauges. 

i Cutting Gauge. 

i Mortise Gauge. 

I Dovetail Saw, 8 inches. 

I Tenon Saw, 14 inches. 

1 Hand Saw, 24 inches. 

1 Bow Saw, 18 inches. 

1 set of Firmer Chisels, tV to lYz inch. 

1 set of Mortise Chisels, }i to H inch. 

1 set of Gouges, ^ to 1 inch. 

2 Spoke-shaves. 
1 Trying Plane. 
1 Jack Plane. 

1 Smoothing Plane (wood). 

1 Smoothing Plane (iron). 

1 Toothing Plane. 

1 Iron Rebate Plane. 

1 Wood Rebate Plane. 

1 Oil Stone and Can. 

1 Marker. 

6 Hand Screws. 

2 Cork Rubbers (one for mouldings). 

1 Scraper. 

2 Rasps, 6 and 10 inches. 

2 Wood Files, 6 and 10 inches. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 217 

2 Saw Files. 

i Square (iron), 6 inches. 

i Square (wood), 24 inches. 

1 Bevel. 

1 Nail-punch. 

1 pair of Compasses. 

1 Bench Holdfast. 

1 Bench Brush. 

1 Brace, 6 bits. 

CABINET MAKERS' JOINTS, &c. 
What may be termed "edge-joints" are a necessity 
in cabinet-making, because timber is not always ob- 
tainable wide enough for the counter-top or panel de- 
sired; and if it were so, the cost would prohibit its 
general use; but more because a jointed top or panel 
will stand much better than a single piece, and this is 
the chief thing to be aimed at. There is a tendency in 
some quarters to avoid jointing, but the policy is an 
unsound one. Again, in the case of oak panelling, a 
much better effect can be obtained by a jointed panel — 
throwing all the figures to the center line — than by a 
single unjointed board. The chief objection to jointing 
seems to lie in the idea that sooner or later the joint 
will give; it may, just as anything is likely to happen 
in badly-constructed work, but given thoroughly dry 
and seasoned timber, a sound method of jointing, and 
a good workman to do it, nothing need be feared. The 



218 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

necessity for jointing will, of course, be governed by the 
width of the timber employed. It may, however, be 
taken as a general rule that nothing wider than 13 or 
14 inches should be used in a single piece, except in 
the case of countertops, which often run 3 feet 6 inches 
to 4 feet wide, and should only have one joint. 




Figure 123 

There are several methods of jointing which we will 
now consider in detail: (1) Glue joint; (2) Giue-and- 
dowel; (3) Tongue-and-groove (or rebate); and (4) 
Double groove and loose tongue. 

The Glue Joint shown in Fig. 123 is perhaps the com- 
monest of cabinet joints for such work as bears no 
weight, — that is, perpendicular work, as carcase ends. 
The method of making the joints is briefly thus : The 
two boards are shot with a trying or jointing plane until 
the surface edges are absolutely true; one piece is 
placed in the bench-cramp, the other being held so that 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



219 



the two edges are together; run thin glue along the 
joint, then work the loose board backwards .and for- 
wards along its fellow until the superfluous glue is ex- 
tracted; the joint should now be allowed to set. If the 
work has been well done the wood is much more likely 




4 



- _ a — „^ A- 




Figure 124 

to break at some other point than the joint. Complete 
success depends upon two factors — true jointing with 
the plane, and good glue. There are so many good 
makes of the latter that there should be no difficulty 
whatever in obtaining it. Remember that the best glue 
is always the cheapest, for two reasons — its adhesive 
qualities and capacity for absorption of water. Good 
glue should take up its own weight of water, i. e., i lb. 
of glue in the oake should produce 2 lbs. weight in liquid 



220 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



form. The joint to be glued should be thoroughly 
warmed, as this makes the glue much more adhesive 
than if applied to a cold surface. 

Fig. 124 consists of jointing as in Fig. 123, with the 





Figure 125 

addition of a series of dowels placed along the joint, the 
object being to ensure greater strength for such pur- 
poses as a countertop. The dowels may be ft inch or 
y 2 inch in diameter, according to the thickness of the 
timber to be jointed. They should be placed (say) 12 
inches apart and bored in 1 inch deep, the end of the 
dowel glued and knocked in with a framing hammer, 
then sawn off to the depth of the corresponding hole, 
and the ends of the dowels rounded over; glue both 
edges of the joint, the dowels, and dowel-holes, knock 
down, and cramp up. The superfluous glue will thus be 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 221 

squeezed out, and when the glue has set, the board can 

be levelled off. ~ , 

The Tongue-and-Groove Joint, Fig. 125, possesses 
advantages not found in the preceding ones, viz. a great- 
er strength, and should the joint "give," the presence of 
the tongue prevents light from showing through. With 





Figure 126 

a pair of match-planes make a groove on one piece one- 
third the width of the timber used, by half an inch deep, 
and make a corresponding tongue on the other piece. 
When this has been done, fit the two together, seeing 
that the tongue will move freely along the groove, then 
glue and rub together as in Fig. 123, and cramp up. 

In the Double Groove and Loose Tongue (Fig. 126) 
— the main idea seems to be that when jointing two 
soft-woods together a hard-wood tongue (which should 
be cut across the grain) may be inserted, rendering the 



222 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




2 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 223 

joint less liable to snap than if a tongue were cut on 
the soft-wood itself and lengthways with the grain. 
Proceed as in Fig. 125, only making two grooves, each 
the same width and depth; glue the joints and loose 
tongue ; rub, and cramp up. 

We have previously spoken of straight jointing for 
panels, carcass ends, &c, but the methods described are 
not suitable for the joints of pieces meeting at an angle, 
as in the framing of a door or of panelling. Joints of 
this kind may be considered under four heads: (1) 
Dovetailing ; ( 2 ) Mortise-and-tenon ; ( 3 ) Dowel ; and 
(4) Mitre. Two broad principles would seem to 
govern these, viz. that the wood employed be absolute- 
ly dry, and that the joint be true. Any deviation from 
either of these fixed rules must result in failure; and 
the second is to a large extent dependent on the first, 
for however good the workmanship may be, if the 
wood be unseasoned shrinkage must inevitably occur, 
with the result that it is almost impossible to put the 
work right when once the job has been framed up. 
Hence the necessity of insisting that absolutely dry 
stuff is an essential in the cabinet trade. 

1. Dovetailing*— Fig. 127, is undoubtedly the joint 
par excellence for cabinet work ; it takes three forrns. 
No. 1 represents the ordinary open dovetail. Each 
piece to be^ clp-vetailed is marked with a gauge and regu- 
lator, spacing the dovetails according to the width of 
wood to be jointed. This form is used wherever the 



224 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 128 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 225 

construction is hidden from view, its defect being that 
the ends of the dovetail are cut completely through, 
thus showing, if exposed, the end grain of the "keys" 
of the other piece. When this is not desired the dove- 
tail is made as No. 2. All dovetails should be cut 
wedge-shaped, so that when glued and hammered they 
will tighten up, and when smoothed down present a 
perfect joint. 

The overlapping or concealed dovetail (No. 2) is 
used in drawer fronts, where it is desirable to conceal 
the mode of construction. The dovetail is cut entirely 
through the side, but only two-thirds through the front ; 
the joint, therefore, is visible on the end only and not 
on the front. This is an absolute necessity in the case 
of veneering, for which purpose an absolutely flat sur- 
face must be obtained, otherwise the "keys" would show 
through the thin veneer and spoil the whole effect. 
The jointing up and finishing is precisely the same as 
in No. 1. 

The mitre-dovetailed (No. 3) is adopted for fine 
work where it is undesirable to show the dovetail either 
on front or side, and consists of a dovetail having a 
mitre on each outside edge; the finished joint appears 
as a single mitre without disclosing the dovetail within. 

The Mortise-and-Tenon is the most satisfactory joint 
for two pieces in the same plane meeting at an angle ; 
it takes a variety of forms (Fig. 128). The main 
point to be borne in mind is that the parts to form the 



226 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



joint be cut true; otherwise, either the tenon will be 
slack and the joint useless, or too tight and will split 
open the mortise. 

The mortise should be a little longer than the tenon, 




Figure 129 

and should taper inward towards its base, so that the 



tenon will be slightly wedged. Other methods of fixing 
the joints are : ( i ) to make the mortise large enough 
to admit of a wedge being driven in on each side the 
tenon, which effectually "keys" it; in this case the 
tenon is usually put in dry, that is without glue; and 
(2) to split open the tenon with a chisel, and insert a 
wedge in the center and drive home. The danger of 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



227 



this method is that the tenon is liable to be necked off 
at the shoulder, while in the former case the rail may 
be split. If the mortise and tenon are fitted true, no 
wedging should be necessary. 



I\u 



/^r^N 



V 



[K 




Figure 130 



The thickness of the tenon should be one-third that 
of the rail and the width not more than 4 inches. If 
a wider rail has to be used, it would be better to make 
two mortises and tenons, as shown in Nos. 4 and 5. 

No. 1. — Ordinary "cut-through" mortise. The tenon 



228 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




-c 



M 



m- 



/I £ 



7 



? 




Figure 131 



can be made as shown, or of the full width between the 
grooves, which are made on either side for the purpose 
of receiving the panels. 

Nos. 2 and 3. — Joints for panel framing with internal 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



229 



mortises. These should be cut slightly deeper than the 
tenon, the joint being glued up and cramped. 

Nos. 4 and 5. — Methods of framing wide rails by 
means of double-tenons, suitable for doors where wide 
rails are necessary. No. 4 is usually called a gunstock 
joint. 




Figure 132 

In framing angles having moulds on one or both 
edges, the moulds may be intersected either by mitring 
or scribing. In the mitred joint, the moulds are cut 
down at an angle of 45 degrees to the mortise-hole, 
and the moulds adjoining the tenon are cut to fit. The 
only danger in this method is that, if the wood is wet 
the mitre will dry in, leaving an open space impossible 
to deal with. 

The process of scribing (Fig. 130) is to cut under 
one of the rails to the pattern of the other which it is 



230 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



intended to join ; but this cannot so easily be done with 
mouldings containing many members, as it would be 
too costly. It, however, has the advantage that, if 
shrinkage occurs, the joint can be knocked up again, 
which would be impossible in the former case. 

These remarks apply to moulds worked upon the 
solid; loose or "planted" moulds are usually mitred, 




Figure 133 



although not invariably. Fig. 131 shows a scribed joint 
for panel-mouldings. The vertical moulding C is cut 
away at A to fit on to the horizontal moulding D. The 
thick line AB shows the line the scribe will make at the 
point of intersection. 

3. Dowel-Joint (Fig. 132) though often adopted, as 
it economizes labor, is not as satisfactory as the mortise- 
and-tenon. The dowels, which are usually }i inch in 
diameter, often shrink, causing the joint to "give." If 
the dowels are of beech and the timber dry, the joint 
should be satisfactory. The usual method of setting out 
a dowel- joint is to cut a piece of paper the size of the 
rail and prick through the centers required according to 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



231 



the number of dowels desired. These are afterwards 
marked upon the timber itself. If the wood is not 
more than i inch thick, the dowels should be set out in 
the center of the rail in a straight line ; if thicker wood 
is used, put the dowels in zigzag fashion, which is the 
better way where it can be managed. 






Figure 134 



Where small sizes are used, the joint at the angle 
formed by two pieces not in the same plane is usually 
mitred. The construction of the joint is thus hidden. 
No. i, Fig. 133, shows an ordinary mitre at an angle 
of 45 degrees, such as is used in the framing of a plinth 
or cornice frieze; the joint is strengthened by a block 
inside. No. 2 represents the same method, with the 
additional safeguard of keys ; this would be adopted in 
the case of thin wood where the mitre surface is very 



232 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



small, and where there is consequently a liability to 
break ; the keys are usually put in with veneer, a saw-cut 
being all that is necessary for their insertion. Glue is 
run in and the joint levelled off. 
No. 3 is a variation of No. i. 




: ^^v- s Jb^^mM 



Yy.nS. 



Figure 135 



I'll 



Fig. 134, shows an angle framed by dowels, having 
on the one edge a bead, which breaks the joint; this 
would be used in framing a pilaster upon the end of a 
carcass. 

Fig. 135, shows two methods of framing an interior 
angle. 

No. 1, Fig. 136, shows the method of framing a 
through rail intersected into a center leg, not more than 
three inches square. No. 2 shows the construction if 
the center leg is above that size, and is not mortised or 
dowelled. No. 3 is copied from an old card-table ; the 
shouldering and dovetailing of the rail show advantages 
over No. 1, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



233 



A cornice may be worked out of the solid piece or 
built up in various pieces. The latter form is usually 
adopted by cabinet-makers, except for small cornices. 
No. i, Fig. 137, shows a built-up mould; the pieces 




Figure 136 

should be glued and screwed together, blocks being put 
at the back to give additional strength. No. 2 shows 
a solid hardwood moulding faced upon softwood, the 
mould having a rebate for the insertion of a dentil 
(shown by dotted lines), egg-and-dart, or other or- 
nament. 

Ofttimes the cabinet-maker is left to design the 
mouldings, in which case it is absolutely necessary that 
he be thoroughly conversant with the mouldings of the 
particular style or period in which he is working, as a 
Gothic mould would be out of place upon a Renaissance 
piece of work, and a Jacobean cornice upon a Sheraton 



234 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



job. If the designer is not conversant with the gram- 
mar of ornament, all kinds of incongruous mixtures are 




Figure 137 

created, neither true to style nor beautiful. The same 
remarks apply also to carving and turnery, and as there 




Cornices 
Figure 138 



are so many text-books of style published, there is abso- 
lutely no excuse for ignorance in this matter. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



235 




Another point upon which 
a word may be said is the 
proportioning of mouldings 
one to the other in the 
building-up of a cornice. 
Let it be supposed that one 
has to be stuck by hand. 
It is frequently possible to 
pick out a series of stock 
members all the same size, Figure 139 

and to strike out a variety of cornices by ringing the 
changes on them. The result, however, will be a mould- 
ing as shown in No. 1, Fig. 138, where all the members, 
a,b,c,d,e,f, are of equal depth. This is both incorrect 
and inelegant ; no moulding made up of a series of 
members should have any two in conjunction of the 
same depth, but the proportion should be varied after 
the manner shown in No. 2, the effect of which — it will 
be at once apparent — is much better than No. 1. 



236 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



3. HINGES. 

In cabinet-work the methods of hanging a door, 
table-leaf, &c, to its corresponding part, are simple, and 
the foundation of the joint varies but little, though in 
the case of hanging a door with heavy projecting mould- 
ing and cornice upon the face, special long-shouldered 
butts would be used. The main point in all hangings by 




Figure 140 



means of hinges is to see that each hinge bears its due 
proportion of weight, thus avoiding strain and conse- 
quent friction and possibly breakage. 

Hinges may be of cast or malleable iron, steel, brass, 
copper, gun-metal, or a combination of metals, such as 
brass with steel washers ; for heavy work these washers 
should always be used, the wearing parts being stronger. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



237 



The earliest form of hinge seems to have been in the 
form of an oak pin (A Fig. 139) shaped from the rail 
itself, and working in a socket cut into the cross rail 
above, the doors being framed up with the job itself; 
the form is common in fifteenth and sixteenth century 
wood- work. Later, the influence of Flemish work. is 




Figure 141 

apparent, and the pin- joint gives place to wrought-iron 
hinges placed upon the face of the door and frame with 
artistic effect, and attached by means of large-headed 
hails (Fig. 140). During the Queen Anne and Chip- 
pendale periods, the hinges were delicately made of cast 
brass and fixed by screws. 

The ordinary way of hanging by butts is shown in 
No. 1, Fig. 141, the rebate is not carried through the 
wood, and the knuckle projects on the front side. If 
this is not desired, the hinges must be fixed flush, and 
a bead of the. same thickness as the knuckle run down 



238 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



to make a better finish. When a lid is to be hinged, it 
would be done as in No. 2, the overhang at the back 
being, in the case of a small lid, sufficient to serve as a 
stop when the lid is open. 




Figure 142 

In hanging a table-leaf, many forms may be adopted. 
No. 1, Fig. 142, shows a beaded and rebated joint, the 
center of the hinge being directly under the joint. Ex- 
ccpt for dust-proof or light-tight purposes, the rebate 
is not necessary. This joint would open to 90 degrees. 
Should the leaf or door require to fold back behind the 
other part, the hinp-e should be placed as shown in No. 
2, the dotted lines showing the position of the leaf when 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



239 



folded back. Another form of leaf hanging is that 
known as a "rule joint," which is shown closed in No. 
3, and open in No. 4. This has the advantage of con- 
cealing the hinge, and making a better finish when open 




II?- 8. 



Figure 143 

than otherwise would be the case ; the joint is somewhat 
difficult to get true, but always repays the labor in effect. 
A variation of this joint is shown in No. 5. 

.Carcass doors are generally hung as shown in No. 
1, Fig. 143, a bead the size of the knuckle being run 
down to break the joint, and the hinge rebated into the 



240 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

door its entire thickness. No. 2 shows the method of 
hanging on to the ends of a carcass* where the full 
clearance of the door is desired, such as would be the 
case in a cupboard fitted with sliding trays. No. 3 
shows the same method, but with air-tight bead for a 
cabinet or show-case. 

Center hanging, as for wardrobe doors, is shown in 
Nos. 4 and 5, the door being set back in a rebate, or 
having a pilaster planted on to hide the joint. Some- 
times this joint is made on the rule principle, but this 
adds to the expense. 

Special hinges, such as are made for card-tables, 
bureaus, pianos, &c, while varying in shape and size to 
suit requirements, are fitted in exactly the same manner 
as the foregoing illustrations indicate. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



241 



r 

r 



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— 19 



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Figure 144 






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111 



242 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES. 

It is not our intention to offer much in the line of 
practical examples, showing details, dimensions of ma- 
terials and methods of making such examples ; but it is 
thought a few instances specified in full, may prove of 
use to the apprentice and younger workmen, who may, 
want to "make things" during their leisure hours, or at 
odd times. We start off with a piece of work in the so- 
called mission style and which is easy to make. This 
makes a good table for a library, a den or an office. Be- 
sides fulfilling its purpose as a library table, it can be 
used as a bookcase, where the library is very small, and 
for a writing desk. The writing materials can be kept in 
the drawer and the absence of a lower shelf makes it 
possible to put the feet well under the table without 
interference. 

The best lumber to use is oak, plain or quartered, as 
suits the convenience and pocket-book of the builder. 
Order it from the mill as follows and insist on its being 
well sanded before you accept it, as this greatly lessens 
the labor involved in its building. 

i piece 42X28X J/8 -inch oak. 

2 pieces 12^x28x^6 -inch oak. 

2 pieces -994 x2 ^x % -inch oak. 

4 pieces 29x2^x2^ -inch oak. 

2 pieces 24^8X2j4x^8-inch oak. 

1 piece I9x4^x^-inch oak. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



243 



I piece 1 4x2 J^xJ^ -inch oak. 
i piece I9x4x%-inch oak. 

1 piece I9x2^x%-inch oak. 
i piece I9x324x^-inch pine. 

2 pieces 17x3^x^2 -inch pine. 
6 pieces I9x3x^-inch pine. 



¥ 



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EUn SL^Jbtjo^J 



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Figure 145 



Three-eighth inch dowel pins should be used to fasten 
the shelves and top onto the legs, and if you run them 
through the legs, cover the ends with wooden buttons. 
The drawer linings can be nailed in place as the nail- 
heads will not show, and the other pieces can be screwed 
in place. 



244 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



If desired, birch or other hard-wood may be used in 
lieu of oak, and the whole may be stained to suit the 
taste. 




Figure 146 



The illustrations show the method of construction and 
positions of rails, &c, and as they are all figured, show- 
ing lengths and positions, there will be no trouble in 
laying the table out or assembling the parts. 

Fig. 144, shows a general plan and side- elevation, 
and Fig. 145 shows end elevation, while- Fig> 146, 
gives a perspective view of the finished work. 

Another Mission table is shown in perspective at Fig. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



245 



147. This table is quite simple and may be easily made 
by an apprentice or any person who understands the use 
of ordinary woodworking tools. The table is equally 
suitable for use in the parlor, library or living room. 




Figure 147 



Quarter-sawed oak is the most suitable wood to use, 
and can be finished with a dark mission stain. 

Fig. 148 is the side plan and dimensions of the table. 
The bottom footboard can be made twelve inches wide 
and held in place with three round-head brass screws at 
each end, which will make it very strong and neat in 
appearance. 

Fig. 149 shows all dimensions and specifications for 
the ends. The top and bottom rails are ]/% inch thick, 
while the slats are only % inch. 



246 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



The top is held to the frame by glueing cleats on 
the inside of the top rails, then running screws through 
them into the top. 



I !«- 





. i 


rH 








{ 




'•> 


t" 


J 

Li.. L 





Figure 149 



Figure 148 



All the joints are tenon and mortise and glued. The 
ends are glued and clamped first, then the top side, rails, 
while the bottom foot -board comes last. 

These two examples exhibit the whole method of 
Mission furniture construction, and are quite sufficient 
to serve our purposes. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 247 

SIDEBOARD FOR THE WOODWORKING 
BEGINNER. 

The sideboard which is shown in perspective without 
the drawers by Fig. 1 50, has been designed specially for 
those with limited experience, and in its construction 
mortises, tenons, and dovetails are avoided. For fixing 
the various parts, glue and nails are only required. 

Planed pine boarding as used for building purposes, 
will be found suitable; and when finished the job may 
be stained and varnished to suit. Fig. 151, is a half 
front elevation, and Fig. 152, end elevation, each drawer 
to scale. 

The measurements may be taken from these two 
Figures, but for simplicity the finished sizes of the 
various pieces of wood are as follows: i-in. stuff 
(finishing about % in. thick), top A (Fig. 151 and 
152), 4 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 8 in. ; ends B, 3 ft. by 1 ft. 5 in. ; 
bottom C, 3 ft. io^4 in. by 1 ft. 5 in. ; upper ends D, 
2 ft. 6 in. by S l / 2 in. ; cornice E, 4 ft. 5 in. by 10^2 in. ; 
pediment F, 4 ft. by 6 in. (widest part) ; drawers 
bearer G, 3 ft. ioy 2 in. by 3% in. ; division H between 
drawers, 1 ft. 5 in. by 4^2 in. ; brackets J, 6 in. by 5 in. ; 
shaped span-rail K, 3 ft. 10^2 in. by 3 in. ; and corner 
shelves, 11 in. by 7 in. The pieces of ^4-in. stuff are: 
For the doors (made of three thicknesses of stuff), four 
stiles L, 2 ft. 1 in. by 3 in.; four cross rails 1 ft. $% 
in. by 3 in., and for the back face of the doors, four 



248 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



stiles i ft. 7^/2 in. by 2^4 in., and four cross rails i ft. 
1 1 34 in. by 2j4 in. The J^-in. stuff required (finishing 
about yi in.) is: Two door panels, i ft. yYi in. by i ft. 




Figure 150 

SH in. wide; carcass back M (Fig. 152), sufficient 
matchboarding -3 ft. high at the ends and 4 ft. in width ; 
for drawer fronts, two pieces N (Fig. 153), 1 ft. io}i 
in. by 4 J / 2 in.; two pieces O (Fig. 153), 1 ft. 10^ in. 
by 4 T / 2 in.; for the drawer sides P (Fig. 154), four 
pieces 1 ft. 4% in. rjy 4 l / 2 in.; drawer backs Q (Fig. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



249 




mm 






wmX 

MM 





S*?JS^^©^ 



■==!/ 



sir 






m 



;»fefe 



K 






4 



^y-H 



» 



Figure 151 



Figure 152 



250 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



154), two pieces 1 ft. io}i in. by $ l / 2 in. ; for the upper 
part of the sideboard (made up of three thicknesses of 
stuff), two front stiles R (Fig. 151), 2 ft. 6 in. by 
2*4 in. ; two inner stiles S, 1 ft. 4 in. by 2j4 in. ; cross 
rails T, 3 ft. 6 in. by 3% in. ; cross rails U and V, 3 ft. 
6 in. by 2% in. ; panel W, 3 ft. 6 l / 2 in. by 6]/ 2 in. ; 








Figure 153 

panel X, 1 ft. 4>4 in. by 1 ft. 4 J / 2 in. by 8^2 in. For 
inner layer Y and back layer Z (see Figs. 155 and 156, 
and 157), allow the stiles and rails to be % in. narrower 
than the front layer R, S, T, U, and V (Fig. 151). 
The shaped headings of the panels in the doors and top 
part are % in. thick. The top and ends being wider 
than the usual width of deal boards, these will have to 
be jointed and glued. White wood or pine can be ob- 
tained wide enough without joining; both woods are 
very suitable for varnishing. 

In beginning the construction, the wood should be 
first planed to thickness, then the front edges, next the 
ends squared up, and finally taken to width. The bot- 
tom C is fixed with 2 J / 2 -in. oval nails driven through the 
ends B. Oval nails have small heads and are less un- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



251 



sightly when the work is filled up for varnishing or 
polishing. Next the bearer G and then top A are nailed 
in the same way. When nailing, if the nails are driven 



s 






Si ■ ~ '^~ W/yfc'.l-.-S 



Figure 155 

slantwise, alternately leaning towards the front and 
back, they will act like dovetails, and prevent the top 
from lifting or the ends drawing away from the bot- 



3g 



**WACM = ■=- __ _ 



— fc^l-^- ^~ 



g a & ^.^c-u - — =r-i^' — -•- 



Figure 156 

torn. The latter may also be prevented by screwing 
a strip to the under side of the bottom C and to the 
ends as shown in Fig. 158. Note that the top projects 



I - -cr- 






N 

Figure 157 




Figure 158 



I y 2 in. at the front and 3 in. at each end. The division 
H may be fixed' with 2-in. nails. 

The matchboarding back M may now be fixed with 



252 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



ij4-in. nails. The outer edges M (Fig. 152) should 
be worked half-round in section with a smoothing plane 
and course glasspaper; it will then look like a bead 
moulding worked on the back edges of the ends. 





ma 

Figure 159 Figure 160 

The doors made up of two thicknesses may next be 
taken in hand. Fig. 159 shows the stiles L fixed with 
glue and nails to the back cross rails ; the front rails and 
back stiles are next fitted. Note that the back stiles 
and rails are % in. narrower than the front, so as to 
provide a rebate for the panels; see Fig. 160, which is 
an enlarged section of the door, stiles, and panel. When 
the doors are together, the shaped headings may be 
fitted; or for a better construction, the stiles and top 
rail could be rebated to receive it. 

The drawer sides are nailed to the inner front O 
(Fig. 153) and back Q (Fig. 154). Strips A '(Fig. 
154) are nailed to the sides for the bottom to rest on, 
the latter passing under the back O. The outer drawer 
front N is nailed to the drawer sides and glued to O. 
Of course, this method of construction is only to avoid 
dovetailing and ploughed grooves for the bottom. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



253 



The framing of the top part (Fig. 161) is fitted 
between ends D (Figs. 151 and 152) and under the 
shelf E, and rests on the top A. The method of con- 
struction is similar to the doors, the joints of the outer 
face being as shown in Fig. 151. The middle portion Y 



ft 



I -1 






T 









Figure 161 

is as shown in Fig. 161, and the back face Z (Figs. 
155, 156, and 157) the same as the front face in Fig. 
151. The center mirror may be of bevelled-edge or 
plain silvered plate; or if desired a wood panel could 
be fixed. The half circular headings are fixed as de- 
scribed for the doors. The corner shelves, ends D, and 
shelf E are fixed to the framing with 2-in. nails. 

For ease of handling, the upper part should be fixed 



254 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



to the lower by driving screws through the under side 
of the top A into the ends D, also into the back framing 




Figure 162 



Figure 164 



( Fig. 1 6 1 ) . Suitable brass or copper handles for doors 
and drawers will add to the appearance of the side- 
board. 

For staining the wood, use permanganate of potash 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



255 




Figure 163 



256 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

dissolved in hot water; less potash for oak than for 
walnut or mahogany. The correct shade may be got 
by experimenting on an odd piece of wood. When the 
stain is dry, give a coating of glue size. Then thin 
coats of varnish. When all parts show a gloss, put 
aside for twenty-four hours, then glasspaper, and apply 
the finishing coats of varnish or French polish. Bis- 
marck brown added to the varnish will give mahogany 
color. 

We show herewith in Figs. 162, 163, 164 and 165, 
part elevations and details of two low-cost sideboards, 
to make will be excellent practice for the younger 
workmen. 

Fig. 162 includes center and two small side mirrors in 
upper part and three drawers, two cupboards and center 
recess in lower part. Height from A to B, 12 in.; 
B to C, 2 ft. 9 in. ; C to D, 3 ft. 3 in. ; cupboard door, 
say, 23 in. by 17 in.; depth of drawers, 5 in. outside. 
Turning is introduced, with alternative details for selec- 
tion. Note swell and taper to turned column B, C, 2 J4- 
in. swell, and see end elevation at Fig. 164, with 3^- 
in. column receded. Corner B, with dentils and frieze, 
about 4 in. ; lined up top C, 2 24 in. moulded; 1 in. solid 
fronts to drawers, faced with y 2 in. moulded and mitred 
strips. One 5-in., or two 3^2-in. lacquered brass 
handles. Hobbs' four lever locks. Panel at E may 
repeat on end, less capping: Shelf inside cupboard, 
1 in. moulded thumb; 2-in. brass butt hinges; i-in. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



257 




Figure 165 



258 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



CuJIl C<*~~w ^r>* 




^ m W22MSM WMZfflzk 



Half front elevation 
Figure 166 



Figure 167 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 259 

ends, and I ft. 9 in. back to front; i%-in. posts; i-in. 
door stiles and rails ; bottom under drawers through to 
back; flush framed back, }i in., let in rebates; i-in. 
bevel to mirror, ij^-in. framing to back. Fig. 2 all 
cupboard doors, wood panels moulded; center mirror, 
24 in. by 28 in.; back above F, 13^ in. high; F to G, 
3 ft. 1 in. ; upper door I, 19 J/2 in. by 1 1 in. ; inside depth, 
Sy 2 in.; lower side door, 2 ft. 6]/ 2 in. by 14 in. If a 
leaf is cut in posts as indicated, it will ensure a good 
effect. The columns supporting upper cupboard will 
rest on toes at G, returning to intersect with base mould- 
ing of back. The sideboard upper backs is fixed to 
lower carcass by dowelling into top, and also by con- 
tinuing the uprights, some 9 in. or 12 in., below top to 
be screwed to carcass back. Either canted, as shown, 
or quadrant corners would be suitable for center mirror. 
All shelves are indicated by an outlined base. Fig. 
165 gives a few details: — A refers to (Fig. 162) sec- 
tion, i}i in., with top turning enlarged (J) ; K, small 
spindles in lower carcass ; B, enlarged detail for cornice 
frieze and column in Fig. 162 and cornice, etc., F 
(Fig. 163). The pattern shown in detail at L may be 
carved in frieze with good effect. M, section for mould- 
ing round center mirror; N, alternative to lesser 
columns at C (Fig. 164) ; O, dotted line of shelf (Fig. 
162) ; C, G, detail for table top (Figs. 162 and 163) 
of i-in. stuff lined up; D, detail for Fig. 162 at floor 
line, iy 2 -'m. section. Door frames should be mortised 



260 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




Figure 169 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 261 

right through, as at P, and moulded oriels, the geo- 
metrical framing being mitred up and turned in to 
intersect to patterns shown. A section through lower 
carcass occurs at Q for pilasters and plain moulded 
panels front and ends. Another method is indicated 
by cut at R suitable for plain ends, vertical grain, or 
a 9-in. upper end rail, with panelling to match E 
(Fig. 162). 

The half-Front elevation and details of sideboard in 
Fig. 166 is a little more pretentious than those pre- 
ceding it, and of course will tax the skill of the work- 
man proportionately, but we do not think it beyond the 
ability of the ordinary trained workman. The eleva- 
tion sections and details have all been drawn to scale, 
and are, therefore, measurable. 

Fig. 166 shows the half elevation. Fig. 167 shows 
section of lower portion and mirror portion of upper 
works. Fig. 167, is the upper part of board in section. 
The mouldings in section require no explanations. 

Cabinet-makers as a rule do not often have calls to 
make Grandfather's clock cases, but, it does sometimes 
fall to the lot of the workman to make a case, so it may 
not be amiss to give one or two simple designs on this 
work, giving dimensions and style of finish. The 
proper material to be employed in making this case is 
mahogany, but of course, walnut or quartered oak — 
darkened — will answer very well, but in either case, 
good workmanship and fine finish will be necessary to 
give the clock an artistic appearance. 



262 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 




THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 263 

The sizes given in this example are suitable for a 
clock with 12 in. dial, and the remarks which follow 
should render the setting out a simple matter. (A) 
The clock case Fig. 169, consists of sides, front, and 
corner only, so that it may be pushed on from the front, 
along the moulding E, the back ends of sides being re- 
bated to fit over the back — an arrangement which ren- 
ders the clock easily accessible. Height through center 
of dial from bottom of door to top of cornice, 25^2 in. 
Height of door in center, 21 in. ; the rise being 4^4 in. ; 
width, 15J4 in. ; frame, 1^8 in., out of j4-in. stuff, 
and glazed. The door shuts on to an inner frame of 
same size, out of }4-in. stuff, well screwed, with glued 
blocks. The ends, Sy 2 in. wide (cut out in center, and 
glazed, as G), and continued through cornice up to 
springing of top curve ; frieze and cornice are built up 
thereon. The top or "roof" of case is built up of >£-in. 
stuff, bradded or screwed to upper member of cornice, 
and to top back rail on case cut to same curve, both 
being rebated for the purpose. The cornice projects 
1 % in. over sides, being supported by columns tapering 
from % in. to 1 in. diam. These may either be plain 
or mounted, with brass Corinthian capitals and bases, 
the shafts then being reeded. The upper finials are also 
of brass, and impart a most pleasing finish to the top. 
It should be added that the clock movement rests upon 
ledges about 4 J / 2 in. high, which also serves as guides 
to the loose case*, and steady it when in position. Body 



264 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



of clock (B) : This is constructed of J^-in. stuff — 
front framed (dowelled or rebated 15 in. wide) into 
ij/4. in. posts, the outer corners of which are canted to 
receive ij4 m - turned pillars. Sides 7 in. wide, re- 
bated flush into posts and top and bottom rails, and 
also rebated to receive back. Hide joints of rebates 



<^^> 




Figure 171 

with a scratched brad. Back of 34 -in. stuff shaped at 
top to fit upper curve. Stiffen the joints with well- 
fitting blocks along the inner angles, using good strong 
glue for the purpose. The body B beds down about 6 
in. lower than the upper moulding of the base F ; sides 
(9 in. wide), front (19 in. wide), and back of which 
are rebated together and blocked. All mouldings are, 
of course, mitred round sides and front only. The 
door B (of y^-'m. stuff), is rebated to shut on to front, 
frame, and projects J4 i n - only. The moulding and 
carved fans at C might be further embellished by an 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



265 



inlaid oval — in marquetry — and let into center of panel. 

The old clock shown in Fig. 170, is English, and was 

designed and made by the celebrated Fromanteel, of 





Figure 172 



Figure 173 



London, whose name is engraved on the dial between 
V. and VII. and over the figures registering the date 
of the month. A minute dial occupies the upper portion 




Figure 174 

of the main dial, which is entirely of brass, the numeral 
disc being raised about an eighth of an inch above the 
central portion. The minutes are numbered throughout 
the circumference over the hours, and these latter are 
divided by fleur-de-lis. The hands are of beautiful de- 
sign in steel, and the clock case is in oak. The ball 



266 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

terminals are gilt, and screw into little wooden bases, 
as shown. At either angle beyond the dial are spandrels 
of cast-brass ornament in coarse style, representing two 
cupids bearing crossed sceptres and supporting a regal 
crown. The screw which fixes this ornament has a 
Tudor rose for its head, and forms the center of the 
composition. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 267 

HOW TO MAKE A CORNER CHAIR. 

The object, in the present design, is to make a corner 
chair capable of affording support to the shoulders; 
and in this respect the design annexed is somewhat 
original. The selection of the wood for same is a 
matter of taste; black walnut, mahogany (stained 
dark), rosewood, or dull black are all suitable. To 
save expense, it might, moreover, be made without 
the underframing or listing shown, although the 
strength would be reduced without it. But our purpose 
for the moment is, "how to make," and a few practical 
hints may be useful on that point. The first business is 
to produce the moulds to working drawing shown, and 
as an inch scale is adopted, this should be a simple mat- 
ter. Then get out the four legs — i. e., two long and 
two short. The two long legs must be out of 2 in. 
wood, to allow of throw over scroll at top; iy 2 in. wood 
will do nicely for the short ones. The seat rails must be 
2 in. solid wood, and beech cannot be used except for 
blocking, as all the wood is more or less seen. The back 
might be i)A in. wood, to allow, when the top is glued 
on, for shaping back and front to bring it in a line with 
the top. The top would take a piece of 4^2 in. wood, 
to allow for sweep. Of course where several chairs 
are made, the tops can be marked one into the other, and 
thus waste of timber avoided ; 1 J4 m - wood will be 
stout enough for the arms and brackets. The splat 



268 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



must be out oi iyi in., which will allow for stuffing 
rabbet. 

Drawer Making and Fitting. 
It is often said that a man who can make and fit a 
drawer well can make almost anything in constructive 




Figure 175 



woodwork. This is probably true, with some reserva- 
tions, for it is generally accepted as a good test of a 
man's skill, and we have no doubt that beginners find it 
one of the most difficult things to tackle, especially in 
the preparation and "setting out." The general method 
is as follows, applied to an average sized drawer: — 
Carefully select the stuff — i. e., y 2 in., finishing Y% in., 
for sides and back ; Y% in. or %. in. for the bottom, and 
I in., to finish % in. or J4 in., for the front. All the 
stuff should be dry and clean, as well as straight and 
even in the grain, and each piece must be planned up 
true and gauged to an equal thickness. Care must be 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



269 



taken with the face marks, so that they can be easily 
read as indicating certain positions. 

A handy and general workshop method is shown in 
Figs. 172 and 173, marked on the front of the drawer, 



ft! 



I 



fTO 



mm 



•Mil 



.pi 

T 



pi I 

l' 1 'I I 

iiiiki 



Figure 176 

and the back of the back, and (2) on the front end of 
the sides. These marks indicate the outside and bot- 
tom edge of each piece, as well in the giving the num- 
ber; and if this simple rule is applied there should be 
no mistake made. Where a set of drawers are the 
same depth, the same number should be written on the 
bearer or carcase. In all cases an allowance must be 
made on the width and length of the front and sides 
for fitting, and l /$ in. is ample for this ; but the sides can 
be squared on the shooting board at each end to the 
length required. It is never a good plan to let a drawer 
stop on to the back of a job, so the sides should be at 
least j4 in. or J4 in. less in length than the inside of the 
carcase. 

After preparing the stuff, the next job is to fit it. 
Carefully joint one end of the front, and fit it to the 
corresponding end of the opening ; then mark off length 



270 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

at the other end, and fit tightly in the same, but leave 
the top edge until the final fit of the drawer. Then 
"run" or fit the sides in — remembering the marks — 
taking care they fit tight from end to end, and then 
plane the ends of the back to fit the opening in the same 
way as the front. The stuff is now ready for gauging 
and the cutting gauge is the best of the two to use. 
Gauge the lap on the ends of the front first (see distance 
A on Fig. 174), and then on both sides of the front 
ends of the sides (see A, Fig. 175). Then set the 
gauge to the thickness of the sides, and strike a line 
from the ends on the inside face of the front (see B, 
Fig. 174) ; and this same line must be gauged from the 
end and on both sides of the back. Lastly, the thick- 
ness of the back must be gauged in a like manner from 
the back ends of the sides. It will be noted that, even 
if a dozen drawers are to be made, the gauge is shifted 
only three times, and only twice if the back is the same 
thickness as the sides, which should always happen 
when the wood is obtainable. In gauging the thick- 
nesses, care must be taken to set the gauge a little 
under, but never over, or a bad fit is bound to follow. 
It also might happen that the best planed stuff will 
"cast," and the sides may cast hollow in the length; 
whenever this does occur the round side should always 
be put outside. 

The stuff is now ready for setting out and cutting 
the dovetails. Men of experience are able to just mark 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 271 

off distances and cut the dovetails quickly and regu- 
larly. To those who are less skilled and beginning, a 
good and simple method is shown in Fig. 176. On the 
front end of one of the sides square down — with pen- 
cil — the lines 1 and 2, % in. from each edge, and then 
divide the space between these lines for the required 
number of dovetails. The lines will then become the 
center of the pins. To set out the dovetails, mark 
i-i6th in. each side of the line at the top and l /$ in. at 
the bottom; join these points, and the dovetails are 
given. The same method can be adopted on the fronts 
if the holes are to be cut first. There are various meth- 
ods and many opinions as to which should be done first, 
but the safest course is to use the one you know and can 
best apply to the work at hand. We know of no sim- 
pler way of setting out dovetails than the one explained ; 
and it will be noted that the half pin on the outside is 
left strong enough, whilst the spacing of the pins is reg- 
ular and at a suitable angle. 



272 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

TO MAKE DRAWERS SLIDE EASILY. 

In many cases when a drawer sticks it will be found 
that the place in which it slides, or ought to slide, is the 
part that requires most attention. 

A drawer to run well must be perfectly parallel back 
and front all around, except that the sides and top and 
bottom may be eased off to the extent of 1/16 in. to }£ 
in. at the extreme ends, this easing off to extend to 
about y 2 in. from the end. For small drawers much 
less will be sufficient; large drawers may have a little 
more taken off. 

The runners, that is, the wood against which the 
drawer slides in its receptacle, should not be quite paral- 
lel, but a little wider at the back, or the drawer will 
never run well. Here again it is impossible to give 
exact measurements. A drawer 1 ft. wide, 6 in. high, 
and 1 ft. 6 in. long would require the space at the back 
to be about % in. wider and higher than the front. 

One great fault with drawers is that they "wind," 
that is, if placed on a perfectly flat table, all four cor- 
ners will not touch the level surface. This is most 
difficult to rectify. The cause may be bad workman- 
ship or unseasoned wood which has twisted in drying. 
The high parts may be planed off, but then the drawer 
will be small, and must be made up to its proper size 
by gluing on strips of wood ; or the receptacle may be 
reduced in size. The latter is usually the easier to do. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 273 

Suppose that the top long drawer of the 4-ft. chest 
of drawers which has stuck half-way is to be rectified. 
Do not use too much force in pulling the handles, or 
they may come off, or the whole front come away from 
the sides. Unscrew the back from the carcase, and 
while a helper pulls at the handles, gently tap the ends 
at the back with a hammer, a piece of wood being inter- 
posed endwise of the grain to act as a punch. Take 
care to hit the end of the drawer that is farthest in. If 
this does not move the drawer, it may be necessary to 
remove the partition between the drawers by sliding it 
out, and then the runners at the sides of the carcase, 
by gently prising them out, first previousl yremoving 
the screws if necessary. 

The drawer must be badly jammed if it still remains 
fixed, and removal to a warmer room had better be 
tried, and a little time allowed before resorting to 
stronger measures. 

When the drawer is removed, first replace the par- 
tition and runners, and ascertain whether the latter are 
wider apart at the back than at the front. This is best 
done by cutting a strip of wood the exact length of the 
opening of the front, and sliding it to the back. If not, 
the runners must be reduced. Or it may happen that 
there is no runner, or that it has been forced out of 
place. 

Having got the runners parallel, except for the lit- 
tle play mentioned, next see that they are straight from 



274 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

back to front; the sides of the carcase may have bulged 
and bent them. Afterwards do the top and bottom in 
a similar way. Before and during the process of adjust- 
ment, see that the runners do not wind with the front. 
This can be ascertained by placing the eye about 3 in. 
from the front of the bottom rail on which the drawer 
slides and level with it, and observing that the runner 
ends are in the same plane, by looking first at one end 
and then the other without moving the eye. This re- 
quires practice, and is termed "taking it out of wind." 
Repeat the process for the under side of the top rail, and 
adjust the runners as required. 

Having got the carcase right, next examine the 
drawer itself for winding, and whether it is parallel and 
straight from back to front. If the sides bulge, they can 
sometimes be knocked in a little. If not, the surplus 
must be planed off, first making a pencil mark where the 
parts are not to be planed. 

Now try the drawer to see if it will run in. If it goes 
half way, take off a little with a plane (or scraper if 
the wood is hard) where it is tight. Run it in and out 
several times, and see where it shines, and carefully 
remove the shine. Avoid taking any off the edge of the 
front as long as possible, or it will be too small and a 
bad fit. In shutting or opening a well-fitting drawer, a 
little friction should be felt for the whole length. 

The sides and top and bottom edges should next be 
well smoothed with middle and fine sand paper until 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 275 

they shine. Finally they and the runners should be 
rubbed with spermaceti wax, and then with a linen rag, 
using plenty of pressure. Spermaceti sometimes crum- 
bles away when used. If so, melt it at a low heat in a 
jar, pour into a cardboard box, and keep it there, cutting 
down the edges as required. Nothing need be added 
when using on wood ; but for the joints of brass mathe- 
matical instruments, add 10 per cent of vaseline. 



276 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



VENEERING, STAINING AND FINISHING. 

Veneering which we will first deal with, consists of 
laying an expensive or highly figured wood upon a 
foundation of a cheaper or more common wood. It 
does not always meet with approval, the prevailing idea 
being that if a piece of cabinet-work is veneered it is 
cheap; but a moment's consideration would convince 
the most incredulous that the finest effects in the works 
are to be obtained only by this process. It is a fact also 
that veneering gives greater strength to articles of fur- 
niture than if they were solidly made. Among the 
valuable woods for the purpose many are obtained from 
the far East, even the remote Siam and the Philippines 
furnishing supplies. Some of the most exquisitely col- 
ored and figured woods are only obtainable in small 
pieces, and are used for ornamental inlay designs, in 
devising and applying which the Hollanders are so ex- 
pert that cabinets, tables, desks and other articles thus 
treated by them are imported here and find ready sale. 

The best figured and most ornamental wood is 
usually to be found at the butt end of the tree, though 
good mottle may be obtained at the junction of the 
trunk and limbs. In buying timber for veneering pur- 
poses, only long experience can determine its quality 
and worth ; the external appearance is not always a true 
index of the internal, and it is often a matter of chance, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



277 




278 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the most unlikely stick when opened up turning out to 
be finely-figured wood. 

Cutting Veneers. — Veneers are of two kinds — 
"sawn" and "knife-cut." 

"Sawn." — This term is applied to all veneers that are 
cut by saw. The log is placed upon a travelling plat- 
form, the fine saws being set in a vertical frame and 
cutting the veneers simultaneously through the log. 
The usual number of veneers to the inch is ten, but, if 
desired, twelve may be obtained; the latter are, how- 
ever, thin, and not so serviceable. The veneers are num- 
bered consecutively, so that "match" veneers may eas- 
ily be determined. The ends should be bound with 
muslin to prevent splitting. Veneers to be in proper 
workable order must be kept in a damp place; they 
are then much more pliable, and less liable to crack. 
The waste of timber in cutting by this method is, 
roughly speaking, about $i of an inch per inch of 
thickness. 

"Knife-cut." — By this method there is no waste 
whatever. The log, having been opened up, is steamed, 
and, while saturated with moisture, placed under the 
knife. This works horizontally, and takes off the thin- 
nest shaving possible. The usual number of veneers ob- 
tained per inch of thickness is from thirty-six to forty ; 
they are therefore almost as thin as paper, and not at 
all reliable for hard wear or subsequent scraping and 
repolishing. Knife-cut veneers should only be used on 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



279 



those parts of a job that are not liable to constant wear; 
the only advantage — and that a doubtful one — which 
they possess is that the veneer will "lie" more readily 
upon a sweep or on the flat owing to its thinness, and 





Figure 178 

with a reduction in time there is a corresponding abate- 
ment in price. Apart from economic reasons, a "sawn" 
veneer should always be used. 

Veneering. — Any wood is suitable for veneering 
upon, but those usually selected are of the "bay-wood" 
or pines. The foundation, having been faced up, is 
"toothed" by a special hand plane, thus imparting a 
rough surface to the wood which will enable the glue to 
adhere more firmly. A solution of size and water used 
hot is next applied and allowed to dry. The heart side 
of a board should always be veneered upon, and the 



280 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



reverse side damped with water to prevent the board 
going round when sized. Lay the board face down un- 
til ready for veneering. The veneer may now be laid, 
and can be done in two ways — by hand or machine. 




Figure 179 

For small works, mouldings, or sweeps, use the former 
method ; for panels, carcase ends, etc., the latter. 

Process i. — Quickly brush over with hot glue, tak- 
ing care to spread it evenly. The veneer may then be 
laid down, pressed by hand to remove the air, and 
squeezed down by means of a "caul," removing all 
blisters and superfluous glue. A weighted board then 
should be placed on the job until the following day. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



281 



In the case of sweeps, either a steel bow-cramp con- 
tracted to the shape, or a wooden template secured by 
means of cramps, should be used. 

Process 2. — The machine usually constructed for 



P MW IMg 



m w 



\L 




Figure 180 

this purpose is shown at Fig. 172 and comprises an iron 
framework with perforated cast top, a series of gas- 
burners running at intervals of 9 inches or so the length 
of the machine, and over this an iron plate covered by 
a sheet of zinc. The gas having been turned on and 
the plate heated, the job to be veneered is laid on the 
machine, and cramps are then placed across and tight- 
ened down by means of set-screws, until the air be- 
tween the foundation and the veneer is excluded, and 



282 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



the superfluous glue squeezed out. This may be easily 
ascertained by a tap on the panel, a hollow sound indi- 
cating that the veneer is not bedded. When the veneer 
has been laid, turn off the gas and leave the job to cool 
naturally, say, through the night, the cramps remaining 




Figure 181 



on. After standing for three days, the work may be 
finished off. It will be found that some of the glue has 
oozed through the pores of the veneer, while a general 
roughness is apparent. Proceed with an ordinary iron 
scraper or iron plane to smooth down (the latter is 
better if the veneer is thick enough, as the scraper may 
get too warm and soften the glue beneath), and finish 
with sand-paper upon a cork rubber. The job is then 
ready for the polisher. 

When more than one veneer is used upon a panel, 
they are jointed in the following manner : — 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



28: 



The butt-joint (Fig. 178) is a most effective way of 
veneering a drawer- front or panel. Take two "match" 
veneers — that is, consecutive members — as cut from the 
log, cut through each where it is desired to butt, thus 






\ 






IBs. 




Figure 182 

making them "rights" and "lefts," the figure falling 
equally from the central joint. The veneer is then laid 
upon the foundation, and a few needle points or tacks 
placed on each side the joint, a strip of brown paper 
being glued upon the same to hold it in position. When 
dry, lay as before described. 

Fig. 179. — A more elaborate way of panel- veneer- 
ing is to use four match veneers quartered. All the 
joints must be pasted. 

- Fig. 180. — Still more elaborate is the addition of 
cross-banding, which is laid by hand after the center 
is completed. 



284 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

Fig. 181. — The addition of a stringing is often ad- 
vantageous to break the line of junction and throw up 
the center, a narrow band of the veneer being removed 
for this purpose by means of a cutting gauge. 

Fig. 182. — If there is a defect or hole in a veneer, a 
new piece should be inserted matching the curl or mot- 
tle of the wood, the edges of which should be cut to the 
shape of the curl or follow the line of the grain. If 
this is done, detection is almost impossible; on no ac- 
count insert a square piece, as the hard lines thus pro- 
duced are most objectionable. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 285 

FRENCH-POLISHING. 

This most important branch of the wood-working 
trade seldom gets the attention it deserves, the com- 
mon idea being that there is nothing in polishing de- 
manding skill or judgment, or even worth the trouble 
of knowing. No greater mistake than this could be 
made. Polishers have in their hands the making or 
marring of the finished piece of furniture from the cab- 
inet-maker's bench. Briefly, the process of French- 
polishing consists in the application of various gums, 
lacs, etc., dissolved in spirit, in order to give to the wood 
a surface or polish (bright or dull as required) which 
not only preserves the wood, but brings out the beauty 
of the grain. 

Workshop and Fittings. — The workshop should be 
a large well-ventilated building, with a north light for 
preference and also top lights. It should be kept heated 
to a given temperature, say 60 degrees F , and be main- 
tained at this heat night and day. Hot-water pipes 
around the walls, with regulating valves, will probably 
give the best results; steam-pipes may be used, but do 
not maintain such an equable temperature. A small en- 
closed coke-stove or gas-burner is an essential for the 
purpose of melting wax, obtaining hot water, etc. 

The room should be free from dust, as any particles 
floating in the air and settling on a job in process, are 
bound to be worked up into it, producing a cloudy ef- 



286 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

feet. There should also be a smaller room leading from 
the main shop for "Fumigating;" this must be air-tight, 
and have a pane of glass inserted in one of the upper 
panels of the door for observation purposes. 

Trestles are required varying in height from 9 inches 
to 30 inches, and loose tops of different lengths and 
widths for placing on them. Several wooden battens 
covered with felt to protect a job are also necessary. 

Materials. — It need hardly be said that upon the qual- 
ity of the materials used in polishing depends very 
largely the ultimate results, good or bad. And here, as 
in other branches of trade, the best is always the cheap- 
est. It will be found a mistake to lay in too much stock, 
as polish quickly evaporates and other materials deter- 
iorate, but rather to buy small quantities of lac, spirit, 
&c, and mix fresh as required. 

Not much in the way of plant is needed to fit a pol- 
ishing shop : — say, half a dozen pint (and a few larger) 
stoppered bottles for polish, glaze, finish, varnish, &c. ; 
a few jars of stain, oil, fillers; and tin canisters for 
keeping rubbers, more valued by the polisher than any 
part of his kit. 

How to make a rubber. — Get a piece of clean white 
or gray wadding, remove the skin from it, and roll it 
into an Qgg shape, then cover the same with a thin linen 
rag strained tightly over the wadding, holding the ends 
in the palm of the hand, the two forefingers and thumb 
bedding themselves on the extremity of the rubber, flat- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 287 

ten the under side or polishing surface, and you will 
have an oval flat of, say, 3 by 2 inches. The proper size 
of the rubber depends upon the polisher himself and the 
class of work engaged on. 

If new linen or calico prints be used, they should be 
washed to remove all trace of lime or dressing, and be as 
soft and pliable as possible. A different rubber should 
be used for different polishes, and they are so easy and 
inexpensive to make, there is no reason why work should 
be clouded through dirty rubbers. Cleanliness and good 
polishing go hand in hand. When the rubber is finished 
with, it should be kept in an air-tight canister. It will 
thus keep soft, and may be used repeatedly. Failure to 
do this will result in hardness, which renders it use- 
less. We are now ready to commence work and proceed 
to the first page, viz : — 

Filling-in. — This consists of coating the surface of 
the wood with a filler, which closes or fills up the grain, 
thus making it possible to get a perfectly smooth surface 
for polishing and also saving time and material in the 
after- work. Upon the efficiency of the filling-in depends 
the result of the finished job. There are many good fill- 
ers on the market, any one of which might be equally 
well adopted, but it is much better that the polisher 
should make his own polishes, &c, and many men pre- 
fer to do so. Consequently no two polishers use exactly 
the same formula, but work upon receipts best adapted 
to their own particular style. Before filling-in, the work 



288 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

should be as finely papered down as possible. Too much 
stress cannot be laid on this point, for if well done at 
first much after-labor will be saved. The filler can then 
be put on with a flannel, and rubbed into the grain of 
the wood until the pores are filled up, then wipe all off 
and paper down. This will be found necessary, because 
the filler will have raised the grain. When dry, the 
work will be ready for the next process, bodying-up. 

The following fillers will be found useful. The exact 
proportions can be ascertained when mixing, remember- 
ing that the filler must just be of the consistency to work 
freely. 

Fillers. — (i) Spirit varnish laid on with a brush; 
this forms a good quick filler. Two coats should be 
given. 

(2) Size. — Ordinary glue size may be used as a filler 
in the case of hard-grained wood, and will answer the 
purpose. 

(3) Whiting and Russian Tallow. — Mix to a paste 
and apply as before. 

(4) Whiting and Linseed-oil. — Mix these together 
into a paste and apply with a flannel. This is a filler 
generally adopted. 

The disadvantage in Nos. 3 and 4 is that there is a 
great liability to get the job greasy, which will after- 
wards work its way through the polish, giving the sur- 
face a cobweb effect which is known as "sweating." 

(5) Plaster of Paris and Water.^Mix as required, 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 289 

and apply to the job, and rub off as quickly as possible. 
This filler is undoubtedly the cleanest and most effectual 
that can be used, and entirely obviates "sweating." 

(6) Whiting and Turpentine. — Mix into a paste, and 
apply as before. This is preferred by many to No. 5. 

Thus far these fillers are in the white, and suitable 
only for such woods as ash, maple, satinwood, birch, 
&c. In the case of dark-colored woods the filler should 
be tinted with rose-pink or Venetian red ; ebonized work, 
lamp-black; oak, walnut woods, &c, chromes, ochres, 
and umbers according to the tone required. 

Bodying-up. — We now come to the second stage of 
polishing. The wood having been papered down with 
fine old glass paper, take a rubber, previously described, 
and sprinkle a little polish onto it from the stock bottle ; 
then cover over with a rag, holding the ends tightly in 
the palm of the hand, and tap the rubber against the 
palm of the other hand, which will cause the polish to 
distribute itself over the whole rubber; put a spot of lin- 
seed-oil on with the finger, and the rubber is ready for 
work. Commence very lightly at one corner of the 
work, if it be a panel or carcase end, and by a series of 
motions forming interlacing curves, gradually work 
over the entire surface, never lifting the rubber until 
at the edge of the job. Care must be taken not to have 
the rubber too full of polish, or to press on the work 
too hard, in which case the polish will ooze out of the 
rubber and leave nasty ridges on the job ; the idea is how 



290 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

best to cover the entire work evenly. Having done this, 
let the job stand as long as possible — a few days will do 
no harm, — -the shellac will then have sunk into the wood, 
the spirit evaporating. This will present a dull appear- 
ance, and feel rough to the touch. We then proceed to 
paper down again, in fact too much stress cannot be 
placed upon the value of judicious sand-papering. 
After this the operation is repeated until a good body 
of polish is obtained on the work. Be very sparing of 
using oil; though this eases the rubber, it ruins the 'job 
ultimately. After another papering or pumice-stoning 
down we can pass to the final stage, spiriting-off. It 
may be asked, how many times is it necessary to go 
over the work ? This very much depends on the wood 
worked upon. It will be anything from three to six 
times, the object being to obtain a body, hard and that 
will not sink. Much of the modern work is completely 
ruined to-day because it is "rushed." Time is not al- 
lowed between the rubbers, consequently no proper 
foundation is obtained, and in six months' time the job 
requires redoing. The method described above will 
apply equally to either light, or dark woods, the differ- 
ence being in the polish used rather than the method. 
Spiriting-off. — This process may be called the most 
difficult portion of French-polishing, and when once 
proficient in this a man may be said to know his trade. 
The process is similar to bodying-up, with this excep- 
tion, that towards the last "spirits" only are used on 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 291 

the rubber. This has the effect of polishing the "lac" 
put on during bodying-up, and giving to the work a 
fine, hard, bright surface ; the oil previously worked in 
is spirited out. 

Commence by using, say, two parts of polish to one 
of spirit, then equal parts, afterwards two of spirit to 
one of polish, and thus gradually reducing the polish 
to nil, and using only pure spirit. The rubber and 
motions are as previously described. A clean rubber 
should be used when pure spirit only is used, and a 
series of straight motions taken instead of the circular 
ones, running the same direction as the grain of the 
wood. 

Small mouldings, angles, awkward corners, &c, 
which would be very difficult to spirit off in the ordi- 
nary way, may be done by "glazing." Applied with a 
rubber and worked straight along the moulds, this 
glaze quickly dries, and has the same appearance as if 
spirited-off. It is, however, softer, and will not stand 
wear. Much of this work could be obviated if the pol- 
isher were given the job in pieces; for instance, mould- 
ings mitred around panels should be polished in long 
lengths, and cut and fitted afterwards, thus avoiding 
nasty corners. Turned work is better polished in the 
lathe, before being framed up. Panels should be pol- 
ished before framing up, or if beaded in, left loose for 
that purpose. 

Receipts for French Polish. — There is absolutely no 



292 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

difficulty in mixing polishes, and every man should be 
able to do so, the process simply consisting in dissolv- 
ing shellac in methylated spirit. This latter should be 
bought at 60 over-proof, stored in a cool place, and 
tightly sealed, as it soon evaporates. 

Shellac is orange in color; the lighter the color the 
purer the quality. It is in small flakes, and requires 
crushing before dissolving in the spirits. This would 
be used for ordinary polish. If, however, a clear or 
white polish is desired, then bleached shellac is used. 
This is in lumps, and must be crushed before using. 
This lac must be kept in water. Coloring pigments can 
be added to any polish to intensify it as desired, such 
as Bismarck or Vandyke brown. These polishes should 
be mixed cold — the shellac will take a little longer to 
dissolve, but the operation is much safer, — then strain 
through muslin, and put in stoppered bottles. 

Brown Polish. — (1) 1 pint methylated spirit, 4 oz. 
orange shellac, Yi oz. sandarac; or (3) 1 pint methy- 
lated spirit, 4 oz. orange shellac, y 2 oz. sandarac, 94 
oz. benzoin. 

White Polish. — 1 pint methylated spirit, 3 oz. 
bleached shellac, 1 oz. gum benzoin. 

Black Polish. — Either Nos. 1, 2, or 3, adding drop- 
black or an aniline dye. 

Glaze. — 1 pint methylated spirits, 6 oz. benzoin, Yi 
oz. of sandarac can be added for harding purposes. 

Furniture Revivers. — Under this head come those 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 293 

preparations which are used to restore furniture which 
has already been polished, but has through neglect or 
other cause become cloudy. The first thing to be done 
in a case of this kind is to thoroughly wash the wood- 
work with a flannel soaped with curd soap and warm 
water; by this means all dirt and grease will be re- 
moved. After wiping down with a soft dry duster, 
apply one or other of the following revivers, and pol- 
ish off with another clean duster. Much of the old pol- 
ish will thus be brought back. 

Reviver No. i. — Take equal parts of methylated 
spirit, linseed-oil, and malt vinegar. Mix well and 
shake before using. 

Reviver No. 2. — Turpentine, 1 quart ; bees'-wax, V\ 
lb. ; curd soap, 2 oz. ; water, 1 quart. Dissolve the bees'- 
wax in the turpentine by moderate heat ; shred the curd 
soap in the water and boil ; then while both are hot mix 
together. This will set in a light paste, and prove an 
excellent polisher. 

Repairs. — When a bruise has to be made good upon 
a job the best plan to adopt is as follows : — Raise the 
bruise by means of a hot iron placed upon a damp 
cloth. This, unless the wood is broken, will lift it to 
its original level, it may then be sand-papered off and 
polished. 

Bleaching. — It sometimes happens that some parts 
of the wood are darker than the rest, in which event it 
is most important that the darker parts be reduced to 



294 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

the lighter. This result is produced by bleaching. Dis- 
solve i oz. of oxalic acid in half a pint of water, and 
apply with a rag; when dry, paper down, and if the 
density is not sufficiently reduced, repeat the operation 
until the desired result is obtained. 

Sweating-out. — When too much oil has been used on 
the job, the surface presents a cobweb appearance which 
gradually increases and eats the polish away. When 
first detected, it may be removed with warm water, soap, 
and flannel; but when of long standing, nothing can 
be done to remove it except repolishing. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 295 

3. FUMIGATING. 

This is the process of treating oak with ammonia, 
darkening it by this means to any required shade. This 
result can be achieved in two ways. 

(1st.) Natural fumigation, that is, exposing the 
oak work in a sealed chamber to the fumes of am- 
monia until the required density is obtained. 

(2nd.) By applying liquid ammonia to the job it- 
self. 

The ammonia used should be a solution of ammonia 
gas in water, and should have a specific gravity of 880. 
This must, on account of its volatile nature, be kept in 
a well-stoppered bottle. 

Process 1. — To fumigate by this means a separate 
chamber is required. This may be an ordinary room 
or a fuming-cabinet built in the corner of the polishing 
shop. In either case it must be air-tight, and the door 
opening into it should have a square of glass for ob- 
servation purposes. When the oak work has been 
placed within it, take, say 1 pint of ammonia and fill 
about a dozen saucers placed upon the floor. The door 
must then be closed, and sealed up by means of brown 
paper pasted round the joints. The process of fuming 
then begins, and can be watched through the glass until 
the desired shade is obtained. The smaller the cham- 
ber the quicker will the work be done; the time may 
vary from six to twelve hours according to the strength 



296 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

of the ammoniated atmosphere. Practice alone will 
determine the time for opening the chamber. This is 
the only reliable and safe way of fumigating; in fact all 
other processes are but imitations of it, and the product 
of "cheapness and rush." 

The advantages of this process are : ( i ) that as no 
liquid touches the job the grain is not raised, conse- 
quently sand-papering is avoided; (2) the ammonia 
fumes penetrate deeper into the wood than by outward 
application; (3) the exact density can be more easily 
determined. 

The disadvantages are : ( 1 ) This process requires a 
separate room for the purpose; (2) It takes much more 
time than is required by the direct application of am- 
monia. 

In connection with natural fuming it will be no- 
ticed that some parts of the job may not "take" at all. 
This often arises from the fact that various oaks have 
been used in its construction. Thus "Oak grown in 
one part of America may be susceptible to the fumes, 
while oak grown in another state, will not." Those 
parts which have not "taken" must then be treated by 
Process 2, and care must be exercised that the resultant 
color may be the same. Let the ammonia for this pur- 
pose be very weak. Let it dry before applying another 
coat (if necessary), as it is much easier to intensify 
than to bleach, and nothing looks worse than a patchy 
job. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 29? 

Process 2. — This consists in the application of liquid 
ammonia (.880 spec, grav.) direct on to the work. It 
is usually applied with a sponge or rag. Water may 
be added to weaken the solution if only a light tint is 
desired. The wood immediately darkens upon the sur- 
face, but allowances should be made for its drying 
lighter. The objection to this process is that it raises 
the grain, which entails sand-papering down, while 
process No. 1 does not. This necessarily takes away 
much of the sharpness of the mouldings, the fillets suf- 
fering most of all. In this case it will be found that 
the work does not take the dye evenly, and the same 
shading or toning to a color will be found necessary 
to produce a good result. 

In either process the job should be in the white, that 
is, without brass or copper work or silvered plates, as 
these are liable to be affected by the ammonia fumes. 

Finishing. — The work, having been fumed by either 
of the foregoing processes, is now ready for finishing, 
and the usual way is either of the following: — (1) 
Egg-shell finish ; (2) Wax finish. 

(1) Apply a thin rubber of ordinary polish to the 
job, and dull down with powdered pumice-stone and a 
stiff brush. This will give a dull shine without in any 
way filling the grain of the wood. (2) Dissolve pure 
bees'-wax in turpentine, and apply with a rag, rubbing 
well in, and obtaining a polish by "elbow grease." 
This is a more tedious process than the former, but much 



298 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

more satisfactory, as this process can be carried on after 
the job has left the polisher's hands and the polish will 
constantly improve. 

Mahogany is the only other wood that will "fume." 
It assumes a purple tint, and should be treated in the 
same manner as oak. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 299 

4. WAX-POLISHING. 

This method of producing a polish was undoubtedly 
the earliest adopted by cabinetmakers, and is best suited 
to the finishing of dark oak, chestnut, and some other 
woods. The advantage appears to consist in the fact 
that the process is never complete, and, like Tennyson's 
"Brook," may go on forever. Much of the beauty of a 
piece of sixteenth-century carved oak is due to the pol- 
ishing, — the result of years of rubbing — by use. 

In wax-polishing two ingredients only are necessary, 
bees'-wax and turpentine. The wax should be melted, 
and sufficient turpentine added to form an easy work- 
able paste ; do not heat the turpentine or pour it into the 
melted wax while the latter is still on the fire, as it is 
highly inflammable. As all the turpentine must evap- 
orate before the polishing is complete — leaving the wax 
to act as both filler and polisher, — no more should be 
added at the commencement than necessary, otherwise 
the work will be prolonged. If the stock sets hard it 
can be softened again by warming, but it is better to 
mix it in small quantities as required. The safest 
method of warming or melting all ingredients in the 
polish-shop is by steam, using a kettle or double pan, 
such as the cabinet-makers use for glue. This point is 
one not lost sight of by insurance companies. 

In applying the wax-polish no skill is required, but 
"elbow-grease'' and patience are absolutely necessary. 



300 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

We will suppose that we are polishing an oak wain- 
scoting, which has been previously fumed and stained. 
If the latter, we shall rub down with ^sand-paper; if 
the former, this will be unnecessary. By means of a 
flannel boss we apply the wax-polish, rubbing the pan- 
els in circular motion till every part receives an equal 
polish. The work may now with advantage be laid 
aside until the next day, when the process may be re- 
peated. Let "a little and often" be the motto, — a little, 
in order that no clogging of wax occurs in the corners 
and mouldings, all the wax being rubbed in until an 
even bright surface is obtained, free from all tackiness 
or finger marking ; and often, so that each thin coat may 
have a chance to sink into the grain and by the evapora- 
tion of the turpentine harden. Remember that the pol- 
ish is produced not by the amount of wax used but by 
"elbow-grease." 

If preferred, a piece of felt glued to a wooden block 
may be used ; a stiff flat bristle brush is often used for 
polishing a carved panel or turned work. 

Thus far we have spoken of wax-polishing as ap- 
plied to oak, and it is questionable whether it can be 
applied with equal success to other woods ; stained ash 
is perhaps the next best wood to oak for this method 
of polishing. 

Floors are often treated in this way, including par- 
quet surrounds, plain stained surrounds, or entire 
floors. Hard-wood floors are usually without previous 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 301 

staining, as each polishing darkens the floor until a rich 
tone results. The method is as previously described, 
except that for floors a box-polisher is used, which is 
weighted. This is a wooden case (say) 12x8x6 
inches, weighted inside with iron or lead to 14 lbs, ; 
attached to this is a handle 6 feet long, working on a 
swivel, and thus allowing a sweep of 6 feet or so in 
each direction, in other words a clear swing of 12 feet 
or more. Upon the bottom of this case tack a piece of 
clean felt and proceed to polish. 

The wax must previously have been rubbed on the 
floor with a flannel, and the first part of the polishing 
done with a weighted brush having a surface of 12x8 
inches, and fitted with a swinging handle. This will 
evenly spread the wax and take up all superfluous quan- 
tities; it will also produce a certain amount of polish 
which can afterwards be brought up to a great bril- 
liancy by the finishing felt polisher. This method 
would also be used in preparing the floor of a ball- 
room, which might afterwards be kept in condition by 
the sprinkling and rubbing-in of French chalk. 



302 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



5. OIL-POLISHING. 

If wax polishing was the original method of treating 
oak, it may be said with equal truth that oil-polishing 
was the method of finishing mahogany in. the days 
when French-polishing was unknown; in fact, it is 
questionable whether any of the seventeenth and eigh- 
teenth-century work was dealt with in any other man- 
ner. Chippendale, Sheraton, and their contemporaries 
certainly adopted it as best suited to their work, and 
the untouched jobs handed down prove their decision 
to have been right. 

The great objection to oil-polishing is the length of 
time required to produce a good result; in fact, the 
longer you go on, the better it is. This fact has in 
these days of speed completely put oil-polishing in the 
background; the manufacturer wants a speedy return 
for his capital, and the public require their furniture the 
day after they give the order, so that it is impossible 
to have a job in the polisher's hands a month, and 
speedier methods have consequently been adopted. 

It is unquestionable that oil-polishing will bring up 
the figure of mahogany and enrich its color better than 
any other method, and if time permits, it is, for large 
work (such as panelling, dadoes, doors, screens, coun- 
ter tops, &c), the very best way of polishing. 

The application consists in simply producing a polish 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 303 

upon the wood with raw linseed-oil, this being continu- 
ally rubbed in with a flannel or felt pad. Let the opera- 
tion be repeated day by day until a polish results. The 
process is, like wax-polishing, extremely tedious and 
laborious. Oil-polish can always be revived years af- 
terwards by the same process, and a little judicious rub- 
bing will keep the work constantly up to the mark. 



304 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

6. STAINING AND VARNISHING. 

The rage for effect at low cost has necessitated the 
staining of white woods to imitate the more expensive 
ones, and the bulk of the so-called walnut or dark ma- 
hogany fittings are but the product of the polisher who, 
with dexterous hand, produces the required deception. 
The woods commonly used for stained work are birch, 
canary wood, yellow pine, and other woods. 

Stains should be placed on the wood direct before 
any size or filling has been applied. They may be ap- 
plied in warm or cold water, diluted to their proper 
strength. A sponge is the best medium, and care 
should be taken that the stain floods the wood equally. 
When dry, the work should be sand-papered carefully 
— as the wet stain raises the grain — and a smooth sur- 
face obtained, then proceed with the finishing off as 
previously described. Aniline dyes are much used, and 
can be obtained in any shade in addition to the follow- 
ing. Let the stain be weak ; it is easier to apply a sec- 
ond coat than lighten the first. 

Walnut. — (i) Vandyke brown, J4 lb.; ammonia 
.880, 1 pint; water, 1 quart; (2) bichromate of potash, 
4 oz. ; water, 1 quart. 

Mahogany. — (1) Bismarck brown, 2 oz. ; water, 1 
quart; (2) logwood, J4 lb.; water, 1 quart. 

Black. — Logwood, Yz lb. ; sulphate of iron, % lb, ; 
water, 1 quart. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 305 

Green. — Sulphate of copper, 2 oz. ; chrome yellow, 
4 oz. ; water, 1 quart. 

Apply the stain to the wood with a sponge or rag, 
rubbing over the work until an even surface is ob- 
tained. Allow the stain to dry (which will raise the 
grain) then paper down, and proceed to finish by var- 
nishing. This may be done in either oil or spirit, but 
the process is the same, except that for oil varnish a 
bristle brush may be used, while for spirit a camel- 
hair brush is desirable. After the first coat by either 
method, the work should be rubbed down before a sec- 
ond or finishing coat is applied. If an extra fine sur- 
face is required, paper down again after the second 
coat, and apply a third. Oil varnish would be used for 
such work as would be exposed to the weather, spirit 
varnish for indoor or protected woodwork. 

The following are a few receipts for varnishes : — 

Oak Varnish. — 3 oz. resin, 1 pint turps, and 4 oz. 
sandarac. 

Copal Varnish. — 2 lb. Sierra Leone copal, 1 lb. lin- 
seed-oil, and 3^ pints turpentine. 

Spirit Varnish. — 1 lb. orange shellac, 6 oz. sandarac, 
2 oz. hard resin, and 2 quarts meth. spirit. 

Clear Spirit Varnish. — 8 oz. sandarac, 1 quart meth. 
spirit, }i pint of turpentine; this should stand and be 
strained through muslin to take out all sediment. 

Spirit Varnish. — 1 / 2 lb. orange shellac, 1 oz. resin, 1 
oz. sandarac, and 1 pint meth. spirit ; this makes a hard, 
quick-setting varnish. 



306 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



HOW TO MAKE REVOVLING BOOK-CASES. 

In No. i, Fig. 183, is an illustration of a completed 
revolving book-case of the ordinary type. It stands 3 
or 4 feet high, and is about 20 inches square. A plan 
of the base on which the book-case revolves is shown on 
No. 2. This is made of two pieces of wood 2^2 inches 
wide and i l /> inches thick. These are joined together 
by halving, and have rounded ends. Four castors are 
fixed at the base, one near each corner. The top is made 
of i l / 2 inch boards doweled together, and the edge 
moulded and a rebate cut on the under side. The top 
may also be made of a 3/2-inch board with a ij^-inch 
moulding fitted round the edge, and another J^-inch 
board fastened below, thus saving material and effecting 
lightness. No. 3 is a section of the book-case showing 
the details of construction of the top and bottom and 
the method of attaching the revolving part to the base, 
A being the top, B F and B F two of the laths which 
keep the books in position, and H the fixed base (shown 
in No. 2). The base of the revolving part is made of 
1 ^2 -inch boards, C, which have a rebate cut round the 
lower edge to receive the i-inch plinth, D D, which is 
mitred at the corners and fastened into the rebate. The 
lower edge of the plinth is rebated and a thin board, E, 
fixed into it. 

No. 4 is a perspective view of the frame to which the 
shelves are fastened. It is made of four boards of equal 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



307 



width and thickness joined by grooves and overlapping 
so that a square tube is formed. These boards must be 
of such a width that, when fastened in their places, the 




Figure 183 



width of the frame is the same as that of the base, C 
(No. 3). The middle part of the frame should be i 1 /* 
inch longer than the rest, and fit into the center of C. 
Another way of fastening the shelves, which requires 
less material, is to make a square tube, and attach the 
shelves to this. . Strips of wood 2 or 3 inches wide are 
fastened along the top and bottom of each shelf in the 



308 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



position in which the boards (No. 4) would come. 
These strips keep the books in position at one end of 
each row, and the laths (B F and B F, No. 3) at the 
other end. 

J. 



t 



0- 



v.-M 



fl 



j 



1 



^e 



w 



■w- 



LX 



M 



Fig. 183 

The method of pivoting the revolving part is shown 
in No. 3. A circular pillar, I, is turned to fit the in- 
terior of the square tube,, and the lower end is turned 
down to form a pivot which fits the hole in the fixed 
base, H ; a little above the pivot a groove is cut in the 
pillar, forming a neck which works in a hole cut in a 
piece of i-inch board, G, which is attached to the 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



309 



under side of C. This piece of wood is sawn in half, 
the two halves placed in position on the pillar, and 
then glued together again. The pillar extends to within 
about i foot of the top of the tube. A steel spindle, K, 
with a pointed top is screwed into the upper end, and 



1 

i 

i 

1 






(! 


o 


i) 


i 

j 




! 



Mo. 2 

ReTolviog Book-cw 



Fig. 183 
this spindle pivots in the under side of a metal plate, 
L, which is attached to a block of wood, M. The 
latter should exactly fit the tube, and is attached to it 
by screws. 

The revolving apparatus can also be made by fasten- 
ing two or more castors or wheels to the lower side of 
the base. These castors roll over a metal plate fastened 
to the upper side of the fixed base. The latter is at- 
tached to the revolving part by a spindle, which passes 
through the frame and the base, and is secured by nuts. 

When the top and bottom has been attached to the 
tube, and the shelves are in their places, the laths B F 
and B F (No. 3) are attached to the shelves, and also 



310 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



to the rebates at the top and bottom, by brass-headed 

nails or screws. \ 

Revolving book-cases may be circular or hexagonal 

instead of square, the principles of construction being 




Figure 183 

essentially the same. Sometimes the revolving part is 
made shorter, and legs added to the fixed base. They 
are also made to contain only one tier of books, so that 
they can stand on the table. Fixed book-stands are 
also made with shelves arranged similarly to the re- 
volving book-cases. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 311 

SOME MISSION AND CRAFTS EXAMPLES. 

Chairs. — Although chairs have an infinite variety of 
form, as we have shown, they are constructed on nearly 
the same principles. No. i, Fig. 184, is an illustration 
of the framework of a chair suitable for a sitting-room. 
The hind part consists of two long pieces of squared 
stuff, to which are mortised two horizontal upper rails 
forming the back, a third at the level of the seat, and a 
fourth below. These back legs are usually curved 
backwards above and below the seat, so that the chair- 
back has a slight slope and so that the feet are spread 
out sufficiently to prevent tilting. The front legs are 
joined by two rails, and are also fastened to the back 
by the same number. The tenons of the upper rails 
may come up. flush with the top of the leg, as shown 
in the illustration, or can be fitted into an ordinary 
mortise. The width of the rails at the level of the seat 
depends upon the nature of the upholstery; if springs 
are to be fitted, they are about three inches wide. The 
bottom rails are omitted in some chairs of heavy build, 
or the side pairs of legs are connected by rails and the 
middle of these joined by a cross-piece. 

All the parts of bedroom chairs, with the exception 
of the backs, are, as a rule, turned. The two back 
legs project above the seat to form the back, and are 
joined by two horizontal bars, which are slightly curved 
and joined to the vertical pieces by shallow mortises cut 



312 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



in the latter. The joint is further strengthened by screws 
passed from the front through counter-sunk holes, 




Figure 1'84 

the heads being afterwards covered by small turned 
beads glued in, or if the chair is to be painted, the holes 
can be filled with wooden plugs. The lower rails are 
turned, and their rounded ends fit into corresponding 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



31; 



holes bored in the legs, where they are secured by glue. 
Sometimes only the front legs are turned, the back legs 




Figure 184a 
being left square and bent slightly outwards. The 
seats of such chairs are made of four flat pieces of wood 



314 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

about I inch thick mortised together, the front and 
back pieces overlapping the other two, and the back 
piece being shorter than that at the front. The corners 
and edges are slightly rounded, and sometimes the 
front piece is curved, as are also the sides. The front 
legs fit into the holes bored in the under side of the 
seat, and the back legs are fitted to the seat by grooves 
y 2 inch deep cut in the former. Rounded backs are 
made by cutting the upper ends of the back legs to form 
part of a circle, and fitting across these a curved piece 
of wood. This is attached by mortise-and-tenon joints, 
or by dowels. The lower cross-bar is cut in a similar 
manner, so that, when the four are joined together, 
the back has the form of a segment of a circle or ellipse. 

Drawing-room chairs are framed in a somewhat 
similar manner. Turned or fretted bars are sometimes 
inserted in the back, either horizontally or vertically, 
or part of the back is upholstered. The legs are 
squared, tapered, and slightly curved ; or they are also 
turned and fluted, or left plain and carved. 

No. 2, Fig. 184, shows the frame work of an arm- 
chair. The only difference between this and No. 1 
is that the back is higher, the seat larger, and four 
extra rails forming the arms are added. The latter 
may be upholstered, or not, according to the design of 
the chair; turned spindles are sometimes inserted be- 
tween them and the seat. The back of the arm-chair 
is sometimes slightly curved, and the seat may be made 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



315 



of a large piece of stamped leather nailed across, with- 
out springs or other upholstery. 

Dining-room chairs are now - largely made of plain 





Figure 185 



oak, the legs being square and tapering, the side and 
back rails flat, and the latter slightly curved. The 
wood may be darkened with ammonia, or stained dark- 
green, and the seat upholstered in leather. The backs 
of chairs of this type are not upholstered, but are gen- 
erally made with top and bottom rails, the intermediate 



316 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

space being filled in with flat bars about i inch wide. 

In office chairs and others of a similar type the four 
legs are mortised to the wooden seat, which is made 
slightly hollow towards the middle part. The curved 
back is made up of several pieces, which are cut to form 
a curve and mortised or doweled together. It is at- 
tached to the seat by a series of turned or square ver- 
tical bars fixed by mortises, the two at the ends in 
front being stouter than the others. An extra piece of 
curved wood with a rounded edge is sometimes fixed 
to the middle part of the top of the back to serve as a 
shoulder-rest. When the seat is made to swivel round, 
the legs bend inwards, and meet at a small block of 
wood faced with metal, upon which the seat revolves. 
Office chairs are sometimes slightly upholstered instead 
of being left altogether plain. 

The framework of an easy-chair is almost the same 
as that of an arm-chair, but the side rails which sup- 
port the seat are much wider, the legs are shorter and 
thicker, and the seat stretches farther back. The back 
is not so high, and is made to slope slightly. The 
space between the arms and seat may be left open, filled 
with carved or turned work, or covered with uphol- 
stery. Some settees are made after the manner of 
large easy-chairs, wide enough to contain two or three 
persons; the framework of such is the same, but the 
seat and back are strengthened by additional cross- 
pieces. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



317 



Music Stools. — These are made either with a fixed 
top, or with a top that can be raised. The former 
have four legs and the top is round or square. The 
legs sometimes slope slightly outwards towards the feet 
to obtain greater stability. In the plainer kind of stool, 




Figure 186 

y 2 -'mch boards with moulded 
edges, and of round, square, or oblong shape. If 
round, it is turned on the lathe out of one piece. If it 
is to be upholstered, a ^-inch rebate is cut all round, 
and the upholstery is fastened to it with brass-headed 
nails and finished off with gimp. The legs are either 
square or turned, and are screwed into the under side 



318 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

of the seat ; they are strengthened near the lower ends 
by turned cross-rails. The coarse screws cut at the top 
of the legs are not turned on the lathe when they are 
being shaped, but are made subsequently with the aid 
of a "box-screw." This is a rectangular block of wood 
with a handle at either end, and pierced by a hole in 
which a female screw corresponding to the male screw 
is cut. The top end of the leg is turned down for about 
Ij4 or 2 inches till it fits into one end of the hole, when 
it is pushed in and turned round at the same time, the 
screw being cut by a small knife inside. This method 
of joining legs is only used for light pieces of furniture 
and fancy tables, the legs being- usually attached by 
mortise-and-tenon joints. 

Stools with movable seats have a stout turned pillar 
to with three curved feet are fastened by mortise-and- 
tenon joints, meeting it about 6 inches from the ground. 
The top of the pillar is cut off flat and a hole 9 inches 
deep bored down it. A steel female screw is fixed into 
this, and a corresponding male screw about 9 inches 
long is fastened to the under side of the top. The 
latter is always circular and upholstered. 

Sofas and Settees. — The framework of a sofa is 
shown in No. 1, Fig. 185. The four legs, which are 
represented simply as square blocks of wood, are fitted 
to the front and back rails with mortise-and-tenon 
joints. The upper part where the mortises are cut is 
generally made pretty stout to ensure strength, and 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 319 

any resulting clumsiness is concealed by the upholstery. 
The lower part is tapered, carved, or turned. The front 
and back rails are strengthened by an additional cross- 
piece placed midway, and a similar cross-piece is fitted 
to the back, which is otherwise similar to the arm of 
an easy-chair. A method of fastening the head of the 
sofa is shown in the illustration; it consists of two 
rails mortised to the front and back legs in a slanting 
position, and strengthened by two cross-pieces. These 
rails are generally carved, and the front edges of both 
moulded. The outside of the front rail may also be 
carved. The top rail of the back is sometimes curved 
downwards until it meets the back rail of the lower 
frame, being made of two or more pieces mortised or 
doweled together. The space between the two is some- 
times rilled with turned bars. In order to obtain light- 
ness, each pair of legs is sometimes joined by two 
slight rails placed 2 or 3 inches apart instead of by a 
solid rail. 

The framework of the simple square settee is shown 
in No. 2, Fig. 185. As all the woodwork of this is 
usually hidden by upholstery which reaches nearly down 
to the floor, it is made of common wood and receives 
no high degree of finish. The four legs are turned at 
the lower end and left square at the upper. The four 
rails which form the seat are mortised into the sides 
of the legs, as are also the three rails which form the 
back and ends. 



320 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

The back can be further strengthened, if necessary, 
by inserting two diagonal bars. These settees are made 
in a great variety of forms, from that above described 
to the lighter and more elegant pieces of furniture 
which are embellished with turned work and only partly 
upholstered. Sometimes the four legs which form the 
end-pieces are turned and the seat-frame inserted in 
notches cut in these, and so upholstered that the lower 
part of the latter and all the legs are visible. 

Settees for billiard-rooms are framed similarly to 
arm-chairs (see No. 2, Fig. 184). They are generally 
made about 6 or 7 feet long, and either straight or bent 
to suit corners. The woodwork of a billiard-room 
settee is shown in Fig. 186. The parts are more mas- 
sive than those of ordinary settees. The legs are made 
of 3-in. scantling, those at the front being turned, whilst 
the other pair are bent slightly backwards. The settee 
stands on a platform about 8 inches high, and of such 
and sides. The two front corners of the platform are 
slightly rounded. When the settee is not intended to 
be placed on a platform, the legs are made longer and 
a foot-rest is fastened to the front about 6 inches from 
the floor. This is made of i-inch stuff with rounded 
edges ; it is fastened at the back into grooves cut in the 
front legs, and in front is supported on stout turned 
feet. 

Seats for railway-stations, waiting-rooms, public 
offices, &c, are made in the same manner as billiard- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 



321 



room settees, and sometimes have an additional arm 
in the middle. 

Settles. — No. i, Fig. 187, is an illustration of a seat 




Figure 187 

or settle in darkened oak, suitable for a hall. The sides 
are made of ij/2 or 2-inch stuff, and grooves are cut 
in them to receive the seat, which is the same thickness. 
The seat is y 2 inch less in width than the sides, and 
comes up flush at the front, thus leaving a space Yi inch 
wide for the back. It may be attached to the sides by 
cutting at each end a rounded tenon 2 inches wide. 
These tenons project about ij^ inch through mortises 
cut in the end-pieces. Half-round holes are cut through 
these projecting pieces so that they are flush with the 
sides. When the seat is in its place, a peg made by 
cutting a piece of tapering turned wood in a longitudinal 



322 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

direction is hammered in tight. This is shown in the 
illustration, and holds the sides and seat firmly together. 
To form the back, two horizontal rails are dovetailed 
to the sides, one at the bottom and the other at the top. 
The inner edges of these are grooved to fit a series of 
vertical boards, which are J^ inch thick and chamfered 
at the edges. The top edge of the settle is moulded or 
left square. 

Some settles are made five or six feet high. The 
back of these is upholstered for about 3 feet above the 
seat, and the remainder of the space is filled with solid 
or fretted panels. A narrow shelf for china, &c, is 
sometimes fixed near the top. 

Settles (No. 2, Fig. 187) are sometimes made of only 
two end-pieces and a seat. The former are made of 
1 y* -inch oak, cut to any suitable shape. Settles of this 
kind serve as seats or for holding large pieces of china. 

Another kind of settle which is very suitable for halls, 
has a seat 4 or 5 feet wide, and arms at the ends. The 
lower part forms a box, and is 1 foot deep, the lid being 
the seat. The sides and back are similar to those of an 
arm-chair. The four legs are usually of 2-inch scant- 
ling; the two back legs project above the seat and are 
joined by two horizontal i-inch rails, one at the top 
and the other nearly at the level of the seat. Two rails, 
which are fitted with panels, join each pair of legs and 
form the sides of the box. Panels of ^ -inch stuff are 
grooved to these. The framing of the lid is formed of 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 323 

i-inch stuff, and is 2 or 3 inches wide. This kind of 
settle may be left plain, or finished with flat or chip 
carving. 

Settles which are intended for drawing-rooms are 
similar in structural details to those made for the hall, 
but they are much lighter, and the greater part of the 
back and sides is upholstered. Many are fitted with a 
narrow shelf at the top, and the back is curved instead 
of being square. 




Bamboo Table 



324 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

WORKSHOP KINKS AND RECIPES. 
STAINING. 

Staining is the process of imparting to the surface 
of wood a color different from its natural one. It con- 
sists of two varieties, surface-staining and body-stain- 
ing. In the former, as the name implies, the staining 
is effected by various compounds in the nature of pig- 
ments, laid upon the surface like paint, and forming a 
thin opaque coating, which does not, to any considerable 
degree, affect the fibre of the wood. In the latter the 
changes are chemical, the stain being usually applied 
as a thin wash, which, entering the pores of the wood, 
colors it to some depth below the surface. Staining re- 
quires no preliminary preparation, the stain being ap- 
plied directly to the wood. As most stains raise the 
grain of the wood to a considerable extent, it is neces- 
sary before applying the varnish, to sand-paper the 
wood enough to render the grain quite smooth; this 
sometimes renders a second coat necessary, after which 
the sand-paper must be again applied. 

A Good Black Stain. — I. Gall-nuts coarsely broken, 
2 ounces; rain water, i quart; boil until reduced one- 
half. 2. White vinegar, I pint ; iron filings, 2 ounces ; 
antimony (powdered) 2 ounces; vitriol, i ounce; log- 
wood, a small handful. Infuse in bottle eight days, 
tying the cork down. To stain a piece of wood, give 
the wood a coating of No. i, which acts as a mordant; 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 325 

when nearly dry put on No. 2 ; let it dry quite, and then 
brush it over again with No. 2. 

Another. — Boil y 2 lb. of chip logwood in 2 quarts 
of water, add 1 oz. of pearl-ash, and apply it hot to 
the work with a brush; then take y> lb. of logwood, 
boil it as before in 2 quarts of water, and add y 2 oz. 
of verdigris and y 2 oz. of copperas; strain it off, put 
in y 2 lb. of rusty steel filings, and with this go over the 
work a second time. 

Another. — Boil the extract of logwood in water, and 
to it add slowly a little of the yellow prussiate of 
potash. Brush on hot. 

Another. — Boil 1 lb. logwood in 4 quarts of water; 
add a double handful of walnut-peel or shells, boil it 
up again, take out the chips, add a pint of the best 
vinegar and it will be fit for use ; apply hot. This will 
be improved by applying over the first stain a solution 
of one ounce of green copperas in a quart of water. 

Other Black Stains. — 1. Drop a little sulphuric acid 
into a small quantity of water; brush over the wood 
and hold it to the fire ; it will be a fine black and receive 
a good polish. 2. For a beautiful black, on wood, 
nothing can exceed black japan. Apply two coats; 
after which, varnish and polish it. 3. To 1 gallon 
vinegar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust; let it 
stand for a week ; then add a pound of dry lamp-black, 
and three-quarters of a pound copperas; stir it up for a 
couple of days. Lay on five or six coats with a sponge, 



326 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

allowing it to dry between each ; polish with linseed oil 
and a soft woollen rag, and it will look like ebony. 
4. Vinegar, y 2 gal. ; dry lamp-black, y 2 lb. ; iron rust 
sifted, 3 lbs. ; mix and let stand for a week. Lay three 
coats of this on hot, and then rub with linseed oil, and 
you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the above 
stain nut-galls, 1 oz. ; logwood chips, y 2 lb. ; copperas, 
J4 lb. ; lay on three coats ; oil well, and you will have a 
black stain that will stand any kind of weather, and is 
well adapted for ships' combings, etc. 6. Logwood 
chips, y 2 lb.; Brazil-wood, % lb.; boil for 1^2 hours in 
1 gallon water. Brush the wood with this decoction 
while hot; make a decoction of nut-galls, by gentle 
simmering for three or four days, a quarter of a pound 
of the galls in 3 qts. water ; give the wood three coats, 
and, while wet, lay on a solution of sulphate of iron 
(2 ozs. to a quart), and, when dry, oil or varnish. 
7. Give three coats with a solution of copper filings 
in aquafortis, and repeatedly brush over with the log- 
wood decoction until the greenness of the copper is de- 
stroyed. 8. Boil y 2 lb. logwood chips in 2 quarts 
water ; add an ounce of pearlash, and apply hot with a 
brush. Then take 2 quarts of the logwood decoction, 
and y 2 oz. of verdigris, and the same of copperas; 
strain, and throw in y 2 lb. of iron rust. Brush the 
work well with this, and oil. 

Brown Stain. — Boil 1 lb. of the brown pigment called 
Terre de Cassel with 4 quarts of water, until it is re- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 327 

duced one-third. Mix two ounces (Troy) of white 
potash with sufficient water to dissolve it, and mix with 
the Terre de Cassel. This stain must be applied with a 
brush, two or even three times, according to the depth 
of the shade required. 

Walnut Stain. — Mix together, by stirring, i quart 
spirits of turpentine, I pint asphaltum varnish, i pint 
of japan, i lb. dry burnt umber, i lb. dry Venetian red; 
apply with a brush. This stain is transparent, and al- 
lows the grain of the wood to show through. 

Another. — Boil iyi ounces of washing-soda, and %. 
ounce bichromate of potash, in i quart of water; add 
2y 2 ounces Vandyke brown. This stain may be used 
either hot or cold. 

Another. — With a brush apply a thin solution of 
permanganate of potassa in water, until the desired 
color is produced, allowing each coat to dry before 
another is applied. 

Oak Stain. — Add to a quart of water 2 ounces each 
of potash and pearlash. This is a very good stain, but 
it should be used carefully as it blisters the hands and 
softens brushes. The stain may be made lighter by 
adding more water. 

Other Oak Stains. — To darken the color of oak any 
of the following may be used : 

Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush 
will deepen the color immediately, and it will not fade, 
this being an artificial production of result produced 
naturally by age. 



328 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and 
applied with a brush, will produce a similar result. 

A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring new 
oak to any shade or nearly black. 

Rosewood Stain. — Mix in a bottle ]/\ lb. of extract 
of logwood, i oz. salts of tartar, and i pint of water; 
in another bottle, put i lb. of old iron in small pieces, 
and i pint of vinegar, which, after standing twenty- 
four hours, will be ready for use; make a hard stiff 
brush with a piece of rattan sharpened at one end in a 
wedge shape, pounding it so as to separate the fibre. 
Mix in i pint of varnish, *4 lb. of finely-powdered rose- 
pink. The materials are now ready, and the first thing 
in the process is to stain the wood with the logwood 
stain; give two coats of this, allowing the first to be- 
come nearly dry before applying the second; then dip 
the rattan brush in the vinegar, and with it form the 
grain, after which give the work a coat of the varnish 
and rose pink. There can be no definite directions 
given for graining, except to study the natural wood 
and imitate it as near as possible. With the above 
materials skilfully applied, any common wood can be 
made to resemble rosewood so nearly that it will take 
a good judge to distinguish the difference. 

Another. — Boil i lb. of logwood in i gallon of water, 
add a double handful of walnut shells, boil the whole 
again, strain the liquor and add to it I pint of the best 
vinegar. It is then ready for use. Apply it boiling 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 329 

hot, and when the wood is dry, form red veins in imita- 
tion of the grain of rosewood with a brush dipped in 
the following solution: Nitric acid, i pint; metallic 
tin, i oz. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. Mix and set aside to 
dissolve, occasionally shaking. 

Cherry Stain. — Mix together, by stirring, i quart of 
spirits of turpentine, i pint of varnish, and i lb. of dry 
burnt sienna ; apply with a brush, and after it has been 
on about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain 
takes about 12 hours to dry. 

Another Cherry Stain. — Take 1 quart alcohol, 2 ozs. 
of dragon's-blood; pulverize the latter along with J4 
oz. of alkanet root ; mix, and let stand in a warm place 
a couple of days. Shake frequently in the meantime. 
Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three coats 
may be required. This makes a fine stain. 

Red Stain for Common Work. — Archil will produce 
a very good stain of itself when used cold, but if after 
one or two coats have been applied and suffered to get 
almost dry, it is brushed over with a hot solution of 
pearlash in water, it will improve the color. 

Mahogany Stain. — To darken mahogany, apply a 
weak solution of bichromate of potash in water. Apply 
successive coats, allowing each to dry, until the required 
shade is secured. 

Surface Stains. — The following are for the most part 
used to apply to woods of inferior quality, to make 
them resemble choicer woods. The colors are all to be 



330 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

mixed with very thin glue size, laid on warm with a 
soft woollen material, and the wood wiped dry after 
application. All the colors used in staining should be 
well pulverized, and before use the liquid should be 
strained. 

Imitation Oak Stain. — Equal parts burnt umber and 
brown ochre. 

Imitation Mahogany Stain. — One part Venetian red 
and two parts yellow lead. 

Imitation Rosewood Stain. — Venetian red, darkened 
with lampblack to required shade. 

Imitation Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber and yellow 
ochre, mixed in proportions to give desired shade. 

Fine Crimson Stain. — Boil i lb. of good Brazil dust 
in 3 quarts of water for an hour; strain it, and add 
y 2 oz. of cochineal;, boil it again gently for half an 
hour, and it will be fit for use. 

If you will have it more of a scarlet tint, boil half an 
ounce of saffron in a quart of water for an hour, and 
pass over the work previous to the red stain. 

Purple Stain. — To i lb. of good chip logwood put 

3 quarts of water; boil it well for an hour; then add 

4 ozs. of pearlash, and 2 ozs. of indigo pounded. 

Fine Blue Stain. — Into i lb. of oil of vitriol (sul- 
phuric acid) in a clean glass phial, put 4 ozs. of indigo, 
and proceed as above directed in dyeing purple. 

Fine Green Stain. — To 2 pints of the strongest vine- 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 331 

gar, add 4 ozs. of the best verdigris pounded fine, J4 
oz. of sap green, and y* oz. of indigo. 

Distilled vinegar, or verjuice, improves the color. 

Yellow Stain. — Dissolve y lb. tumeric in 1 pint 
alcohol; let it stand until the tumeric settles to the 
bottom. 

Another. — A small piece of aloes added to the varnish 
will have all the effect of a bright yellow stain. 

To Brighten Stains. — Ary of the stains named (ex- 
cept the surface stains) will be rendered much more 
brilliant by an application of the following : 1 oz. nitric 
acid, y teaspoonful muriatic acid, y oz. grain tin, 
2 ozs. rain water. Mix in a bottle, at least two days 
before using, and keep the bottle well corked. 



332 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

DYEING WOOD. 

Dyeing wood is mostly applied for the purpose of 
veneers, while staining is more generally had recourse to 
to give the desired color to the article after it has been 
manufactured. In the one case, the color should pene- 
trate throughout, while in the latter the surface is all 
that is essential. 

In dyeing, pear-tree, holly and beech, take the best 
black; but for most colors, holly is preferable. It is 
also best to have wood as young and as newly cut as 
possible. After the veneers are cut, they should be 
allowed to lie in a trough of water for four or five 
days before they are put into the copper ; as the water, 
acting as a purgative to the wood, brings out an abun- 
dance of slimy matter, which must be removed, or the 
wood will never be a good color. After this purificatory 
process, they should be dried in the open air for at least 
twelve hours. They are then ready for the copper. 
By these simple means the color will strike much quicker, 
and be of a brighter hue. It would also add to the 
improvement of the colors, if, after the veneers have 
boiled a few hours, they are taken out, dried in the air, 
and again immersed in the coloring copper. Always 
dry veneers in the open air, for fire invariably injures 
the colors. 

Fine Black Dye. — Put 6 lbs. of chip logwood into the 
copper, with as many veneers as it will conveniently 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 333 

hold, without pressing too tight ; fill it with water, and 
let it boil slowly for about three hours; then add half 
a pound of powdered verdigris, half a pound of cop- 
peras, and 4 ounces of bruised nut-galls ; fill the copper 
up with vinegar as the water evaporates; let it boil 
gently two hours each day till the wood is dyed through. 

Another. — Procure some liquor from a tanner's pit, 
or make a strong decoction of oak bark, and to every 
gallon of the liquor add a quarter of a pound of green 
copperas, and mix them well together; put the liquor 
into the copper, and make it quite hot, but not boil ; im- 
merse the veneers in it, and let them remain for an hour ; 
take them out, and expose them to the air till it has 
penetrated its substance ; then add some logwood to the 
solution, place the veneers again in it, and let it simmer 
for two or three hours; let the whole cool gradually. 
dry the veneers in the shade, and they will be a very 
fine black. 

Fine Blue Dye. — Into a clean glass bottle put i lb. 
of oil of vitriol, and 4 ozs. of the best indigo pounded 
in a mortar (take care to set the bottle in a basin or 
earthen glazed pan, as it will ferment) ; then put the 
veneers into a copper or stone trough ; fill it rather more 
than one-third with water, and add as much of the 
vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as will make a fine 
blue, which may be known by trying it with a piece of 
white paper or wood. Let the veneers remain till the 
dye has struck through. 



334 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

The color will be much improved if the solution of 
indigo in vitriol be kept a few weeks before using it. 
The color will strike better if the veneers are boiled 
in plain water till completely soaked through, and then 
allowed for a few hours to dry partially, previous to 
being immersed in the dye. 

Another. — Throw pieces of quicklime into soft 
water ; stir it well ; when settled, strain or pour off the 
clear part; then to every gallon add ten or twelve 
ounces of the best turnsole; put the whole into the 
copper with the veneers, which should be of white holly, 
and prepared as usual by boiling in water; let them 
simmer gently till the color has sufficiently penetrated, 
but be careful not to let them boil in it, as it would 
injure the color. 

A Fine Yellozv Dye. — Reduce 4 lbs. of the root of 
barberry, by sawing, to dust, which put in a copper or 
brass trough ; add 4 ozs. of turmeric and 4 gallons of 
water, then put in as many white holly veneers as the 
liquor will cover; boil them together for three hours, 
often turning them ; when cool, add 2 ozs. of aquafortis 
and the dye will strike through much sooner. 

A Bright Yellow Dye. — To every gallon of water 
necessary to cover the veneers, add 1 lb. of French 
berries; boil the veneers till the color has penetrated 
through ; add to the infusion of the French berries, the 
liquid for brightening colors given on page 43, and let 
the veneers remain for two or three hours, and the 
color will be very bright. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 335 

Bright Green Dye. — Proceed as in either of the 
previous receipts to produce a yellow; but instead of 
adding * aquafortis or the brightening liquid, add as 
much vitriolated indigo (see page 44) as will produce 
the desired color. 

Green Dye. — Dissolve 4 ozs. of the best verdigris, 
and of sap-green and indigo half an ounce each, in 3 
pints of the best vinegar ; put in the veneers, and gently 
boil till the color has penetrated sufficiently. 

The hue of the green may be varied by altering the 
proportion of the ingredients ; and it is advised, unless 
wanted for a particular purpose, to leave out the sap- 
green, as it is a vegetable color very apt to change, or 
turn brown, when exposed to the air. 

Bright Red Dye. — To 2 lbs. of genuine Brazil dust, 
add 4 gallons of water ; put in as many veneers as the 
liquor will cover ; boil them for three hours ; then add 
2 ozs. of alum, and 2 ozs. of aquafortis, and keep it 
lukewarm until it has struck through. 

Red Dye. — To every pound of logwood chips, add 
2 gallons of water; put in the veneers, and boil as in 
the last ; then add a sufficient quantity of the brighten- 
ing liquid (see page 43) till you see the color to your 
mind; keep the whole as warm as the finger can be 
borne in it, till the color has sufficiently penetrated. 

The logwood chips should be picked from all foreign 
substances, with which it generally abounds, as bark, 
dirt, etc. ; and it is always best when fresh cut, which 



336 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

may be known by its appearing of a bright-red color; 
for if stale, it will look brown, and not yield so much 
coloring matter. 

Purple Dye. — To 2 lbs. of chip logwood and half a 
pound of Brazil dust, add 4 gallons of water, and after 
putting in the veneers, boil them for at least three 
hours ; then add 6 ozs. of pearlash and 2 ozs. of alum ; 
let them boil for two or three hours every day, till 
the color has struck through. 

The Brazil dust only contributes to make the purple 
of a more red cast ; you may, therefore, omit it, if you 
require a deep bluish purple. 

Another. — Boil 2 lbs. of logwood, either in chips or 
powder, in 4 gallons of water, with the veneers ; after 
boiling till the color is well struck in, add by degrees 
vitriolated indigo (see page 44) till the purple is of the 
shade required, which may be known by trying it with 
a piece of paper ; let it then boil for one hour, and keep 
the liquid in a milk-warm state till the color has pene- 
trated the veneer. This method, when properly man- 
aged, will produce a brilliant purple, not so likely to 
fade as the foregoing. 

Liquid for Brightening and Setting Colors. — To 
every pint of strong aquafortis, add 1 oz. of grain tin, 
and a piece of sal ammoniac of the size of a walnut; 
set it by to dissolve, shake the bottle round with the 
cork out, from time to time; in the course of two or 
three days it will be fit for use. This will be found an 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 337 

admirable liquid to add to any color, as it not only 
brightens it, but renders it less likely to fade from ex- 
posure to the air. 

Orange Dye. — Let the veneers be dyed by either of 
the methods given in page 45, of a fine deep yellow, 
and while they are still wet and saturated with the 
dye, transfer them to the bright red dye as in page 
45, till the color penetrates equally throughout. 

Silver Gray Dye. — Expose to the weather in a cast- 
iron pot of six or eight gallons, old iron nails, hoops, 
etc., till covered with rust ; add 1 gallon of vinegar and 2 
of water, boil all well for an hour; have the veneers 
ready, which must be hard-wood (not too dry), put 
them in the copper used to dye black, and pour the 
iron liquor over them; add 1 lb. of chip logwood and 
2 ozs. of bruised nut-galls ; then boil up another pot of 
the iron liquor to supply the copper with, keeping the 
veneers covered, and boiling two hours a day, till the 
required color is obtained. 

Gray Dye. — Expose any quantity of old iron, or 
what is better, the borings of gun-barrels, etc., in any 
convenient vessel, and from time to time sprinkle them 
with spirits of salt (muriatic acid) diluted in four times 
its quantity of water, till they are very thickly covered 
with rust; then to every six pounds add a gallon of 
water, in which has been dissolved two ounces of salt 
of tartar ; lay the veneers in the copper, and cover them 
with this liquid; let it boil for two or three hours till 



338 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

well soaked, then to every gallon of liquor add a 
quarter of a pound of green copperas, and keep the 
whole at a moderate temperature till the dye has 
sufficiently penetrated. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 339 

GILDING, SILVERING AND BRONZING. 

Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing are processes of 
applying to previously prepared surfaces a thin layer of 
gold or silver leaf, or in bronzing, of a fine powder, 
prepared from various metals and intended to imitate 
the peculiar appearance of genuine bronze. The proc- 
esses of gilding and silvering being identical, the de- 
scription of one will suffice to explain the other. 

Gilding. — Gold leaf, applied to articles of furniture 
as a means of decoration, is used in two ways; it is 
applied over an ordinary varnish or other finish, in 
which case but little special preparation is necessary; 
or, as when used for picture frames, cornices, etc., it is 
applied to a specially prepared foundation, the basis of 
which is whiting, mixed with various other ingredients 
suggested by experience or fancy. In either case, the 
gold leaf is caused to adhere to the work, by size special- 
ly prepared for the purpose, receipts for which follow 
herewith; the size being first applied to the work, and 
when it has become of the right consistency, the gold 
is laid upon it. Oil-Gilding and Burnish-Gilding 
are different methods used to obtain certain desired 
effects, the former principally for articles exposed to the 
weather, and for heightening the effect of incised carv- 
ing or engraving, and the latter for picture-frames and 
articles having a specially prepared foundation, whose 
entire surface is. to be gilded. It is intended that the 



340 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

gold shall adhere to the work only in the places to 
which the size has been applied, but the smallest portion 
of oil or even a slight dampness may cause the gold to 
partially adhere to the adjoining surface, resulting in 
slightly ragged edges; to prevent this, before applying 
the size to the desired design, the entire surface is 
covered with a thin film of some substance perfectly free 
from moisture, and easily removable by water, after 
completion of the process. Directions regarding this 
preliminary process are given under the caption: To 
Prevent Gold Adhering. 

The Requisites. — First, a sufficient quantity of leaf- 
gold, which is of two sorts — the deep gold, as it is called, 
and the pale gold. The former is the best; the latter 
very useful, and may occasionally be introduced for 
variety or effect. 

Second, a gilder's cushion : an oblong piece of wood, 
covered with rough calf-skin, stuffed with flannel sev- 
eral times doubled, with a border of parchment, about 
four inches deep, at one end, to prevent the air blowing 
the leaves about when placed on the cushion. 

Thirdly, a gilding-knife, with a straight and very 
smooth edge, to cut the gold. 

Fourthly, several camel-hair pencils in sizes, and 
tips, made of a few long camel's hairs put between two 
cards, in the same manner as hairs are put into tin 
cases for brushes, thus making a flat brush with a very 
few hairs. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 341 

Lastly, a burnisher, which is a crooked piece of 
agate set in a long wooden handle. 

Sizes. — These are of two kinds: oil sizes are those 
which when applied, present an adhesive surface, re- 
quiring the immediate laying of the gold-leaf upon it ; 
of this class is the oil-size commonly used in decorating 
furniture; water-sizes are those that are allowed to 
become dry and hard when applied, and are rendered 
adhesive when the gold is to be laid, by brushing over 
with water; for burnish-gilding these are always em- 
ployed, as oil-size does not dry sufficiently hard to 
permit of burnishing. 

Oil-Size for Oil-Gilding. — Grind calcined red-ochre 
with the best and oldest drying-oil. When desired for 
use, add sufficient oil of turpentine to make it work 
freely. 

Parchment-Size. — For preparing Frames, etc. — To 
half a pound of parchment shavings, or cuttings of 
white leather, add three quarts of water, and boil it 
in a proper vessel till reduced to nearly-half the quan- 
tity; then take it off the fire, and strain it through a 
sieve. Be careful in the boiling to keep it well stirred, 
and do not let burn. 

Gold-Size for Burnish-Gilding. — Grind fine sal- 
ammoniac well with a muller and stone ; scrape into it 
a little beef suet, and grind all well together; after 
which, mix in with a pallet-knife a small proportion 
of parchment-size with a double proportion of water. 



342 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

When about to use, add parchment-size until it will 
just flow from the brush. 

Another. — Grind a lump of tobacco-pipe clay into a 
very stiff paste with thin size ; add a small quantity of 
ruddle and fine black lead, ground very fine, and temper 
the whole with a small piece of tallow. When ready 
to use, reduce with parchment-size until it will just 
flow from the brush. 

Another. — Grind separately in water, i lb. Armenian 
bole, 2 ozs. red lead, a sufficient quantity of black lead ; 
mix, and regrind with a small quantity of olive oil. 
Reduce with parchment-size to the proper consistency. 

To Prevent Gold Adhering. — Either one of the fol- 
lowing methods will prevent gold-leaf or bronze from 
adhering to the surface beyond the outlines of the sizing 
laid on to receive it : 

i. Whiting used dry, and applied by means of a 
pounce bag. 

2. Whiting mixed in water, and applied with a soft 
brush. When the water has evaporated, dust off the 
superfluous whiting with an ordinary paint duster. 
By this method a very thin coating of whiting remains, 
which is free from any grittiness. One advantage 
gained by the use of whiting thus applied is, it fur- 
nishes a whitish ground over which clear varnish or 
oil-size may be distinctly seen as the striping progresses. 
After the leaf or bronze has been applied, the work 
must be carefully washed, so as to insure the removal 
of the whiting. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 343 

3. White of egg reduced with water, and applied 
with a piece of sponge. , 

4. A thin wash of starch water, either brushed on 
with a flat camel-hair brush, or applied with a soft 
sponge. 

5. Take ball liquorice and water, a weak solution, 
and apply with a soft brush. This may be kept in a 
bottle ready for use at any time. 

6. Cut a new potato in two, and rub over the part 
to be sized with the raw face exposed, allowing the 
juice to remain until dry. 

It will be observed that any substance which inter- 
poses a film over the varnish, itself being free from 
tackiness and readily removed by water, will answer 
the purpose. 

Oil Gilding. — Applying the Gold. — If the wood to 
be gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no ad- 
ditional foundation is necessary upon which to lay the 
gold-leaf; if the wood is not finished, after it has been 
smoothed and dusted, give it one or two coats of parch- 
ment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, again 
smoothing the surface with fine sand-paper. That the 
gold may not adhere to any part of the work except 
where the size is hard, powder the surface lightly with 
whiting from a pounce-bag, which is a small bag made 
of material sufficiently loose to permit the powdered 
whiting to sift through as fine dust; if preferred, any 
of the preceding receipts for that purpose can be used 



344 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

instead. Remove the surplus whiting with the dusting- 
brush, and the work is then ready for the size. Apply 
this with a sable or fit brush of the proper size, care- 
fully observing to make the outer lines of the design 
clear and sharp, that the work may not appear ragged. 
Let the size remain until it feels tacky, when the gold 
may be applied. This is the most difficult part of the 
operation, and experience is necessary before gold-leaf 
can be laid smoothly without a wrinkle or a break. 
Turn a leaf of gold out of the book upon the cushion; 
breathe gently upon the center of the leaf and it will 
lay flat on the cushion; cut it to the proper size by 
bringing the knife perpendicularly over it, and sawing 
it gently until divided. Take your tip (a brush used 
for the purpose) and after drawing it lightly over your 
hair to remove any particles of dust that may be upon 
it, breathe upon it gently, which will dampen it suffi- 
ciently to cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it ; lay the 
tip upon the leaf of gold and carefully transfer it to the 
work; blow upon it gently and it will straighten out 
and adhere. It may be rendered quite smooth by slight- 
ly dabbing it with a bit of cotton. In about an hour 
wash off the superfluous gold from the edges, with a 
sponge and water. If the article is to be exposed to 
the weather or much wear, the gilding may be varnished 
with copal varnish. 

Burnish-Gilding. — As previously stated, this process 
requires a specially prepared foundation upon which to 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 345 

lay the gold, and as the preparation of this foundation 
is a distinct trade, the furniture dealer or cabinet-maker 
seldom finds it necessary to undertake it, the articles 
coming to his hand ready-prepared for gilding; but as 
in repairing picture-frames, cornices, mirror frames, 
etc., it frequently becomes necessary to renew the 
foundation, a comprehensive description of the whole 
process is given. 

Preparing the Wood-work. — After smoothing and 
dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with 
boiling-hot parchment-size, as previously described, 
then mix a sufficient quantity of whiting with size to 
the consistency of thick cream, and with it by means of 
a brush, coat every part of the frame several times, per- 
mitting each coat to become perfectly dry before pro- 
ceeding with the next. The wood will thus be covered 
with a layer of hard whiting nearly or quite a six- 
teenth of an inch in thickness. The size must not be 
too thick, and when mixed with the whiting should not 
be so hot as the preliminary coat of size. 

Polishing. — When the prepared frames are quite dry, 
clean and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece 
at a time, and, with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, dipped 
in water, rub the part till all the bumps and inequalities 
are removed ; and for those parts where the fingers will 
not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind the wet cloth 
round a piece of wood, and by this means make the 
surface all smooth and even alike. 



346 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes 
be necessary to bring the mouldings to their original 
sharpness by means of chisels, gouges, etc., as the 
preparation will be apt to fill up all the finer parts of 
the work, which must be thus restored. It is sometimes 
the practice, after polishing, to go over the work once 
with fine yellow or Roman ochre; but this is rarely 
necessary. 

Applying the Size. — Select the proper gold size from 
the receipts previously given ; add parchment size until 
it will just flow from the brush ; make it quite hot, and 
apply it to the work with a very soft brush, taking care 
not to make the first coat too thick ; let it dry and give 
two or three successive coats, after the last brushing it 
with a stiff brush to remove any inequalities. The 
work is then ready for the gold. 

Laying the Gold. — The manipulation of the gold-leaf 
has been described under the heading Oil-Gilding. In 
the process now being described, the size used (being 
water-size, which as previously explained is permitted 
to become hard and dry after being applied) must be 
moistened to cause the gold-leaf to adhere to it. For 
this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil, 
dipped in water, go over as much of the work as you 
intend the piece of gold to cover; then lay the gold 
upon it in the manner previously explained. Be sure 
that the part to which the gold is applied is sufficiently 
wet; indeed it must be floating, or the gold will be apt 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 347 

to crack. Proceed in this manner a little at a time, 
and do not attempt to cover too much at once, until by 
experience you are able to handle the gold with free- 
dom. In proceeding with the work, if any flows or 
cracks appear, immediately apply a portion of gold suf- 
ficient to cover them. Sometimes when the gold does 
not appear to adhere sufficiently tight, it will be neces- 
sary to draw a pencil quite filled with water close to 
the edge of the gold, that the water may run under- 
neath it and soften the size. 

Burnishing. — When the work is covered with gold, 
set it by to dry; there is a particular state or degree 
of dryness, known only by experience in which the 
moulding is in a fit state for burnishing ; it will probab- 
ly be ready to burnish in about eight of ten hours, but 
it will depend on the warmth of the room or state of 
the air. 

When it is ready, those parts intended to be bur- 
nished must be dusted with a soft brush; then wiping 
the burnisher with a piece of soft wash-leather (quite 
dry) begin to burnish about an inch or two in length 
at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, but with 
a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool until all 
the parts of the surface are equally bright. 

Matting or Dead Gold. — Certain portions only of 
the work are burnished, according to the fancy, and 
the facility with which the burnishing-tool can be ap- 
plied; the remaining parts are now to be deprived of 



348 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

their metallic lustre, to make a more effective contrast 
with the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said 
to be matted or dead-gold. The process is as follows *. 

Grind some vermilion or yellow ochre very fine, and 
mix a very small portion either with the parchment 
size or with the white of an egg, and with a very soft 
brush lay it evenly on the parts to be dulled; if well 
done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the work. 
Previous to matting, the work must be well cleared of 
superfluous gold, by means of a soft brush. 

Finishing. — In elaborate works it is frequently im- 
possible to lay gold-leaf into all the intricacies of an 
elaborate design, and the parts thus left bare must be 
finished by touching up with a small brush charged with 
shell-gold, or gold-powder, mixed with gum-Arabic to 
the proper consistency. The following receipt describes 
the preparation of shell-gold : 

Shell Gold. — Take any quantity of leaf-gold and 
grind it with a small portion of honey, to a fine powder, 
add a little gum-Arabic and sugar-candy, with a little 
water, and mix it well together ; let it dry. 

Silver She. — Grind pipe-clay fine with a little black- 
lead and good soap, and add parchment-size as directed 
for gold-size. 

Composition for Frame Ornaments. — The ornaments 
for gilded mirror-frames, etc., are usually moulded 
from some plastic substance that is somewhat tougher 
and more durable than the ordinary gilding founda- 



,THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 349 

tion of whiting and size. The proper moulds being pre- 
pared they are thoroughly rubbed upon the inside with 
sweet oil, and the composition firmly pressed in; after 
removing the mould the cast may be dried by a gentle 
heat, or while still plastic it can be applied in its proper 
place and bent into any position. Following are re- 
ceipts for composition : 

Dissolve i lb. of glue in i gallon of water. In an- 
other kettle boil together 2 lbs. of resin, 1 gill of Venice 
turpentine, and 1 pint of linseed oil ; mix altogether in 
one kettle, and boil and stir till the water has evaporated. 
Turn the whole into a tub of finely-rolled whiting, and 
work it till it is of the consistency of dough. 

Boil 7 lbs. of best glue in 7 half-pints of water. Melt 
3 lbs. of white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed oil. When 
the above has been well boiled put them into a large 
vessel and simmer them for half an hour, stirring the 
mixture and taking care that it does not boil over. The 
whole must then be turned into a box of whiting rolled 
and sifted, and mixed till it is of the consistency of 
dough. 

To Manipulate Gold Leaf. — Get a piece of paper, thin 
enough to show shadow of gold-leaf through, slightly 
wax.it, lay it on .gold-leaf, the latter will then adhere, 
and can be easily worked, and will come off clean. The 
paper should be slightly larger than the gold-leaf, and 
the fingers passed over the paper to make the gold-leaf 
adhere. - 



350 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

Bronzing. — This is a process for imitating on metal, 
plaster, wood, or other material, the peculiar appearance 
produced by chemical action upon the surface of bronze 
metal. It is accomplished by spreading over the surface 
of the material to be ornamented a very thin coating of 
bronze-powder, which is caused to adhere either by ap- 
plying it directly upon a coating of any of the sizes men- 
tioned in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a ve- 
hicle, such as gum-Arabic or transparent varnish. The 
latter is most desirable, as in the other case, being sub- 
ject to the direct action of the atmosphere, the bronze- 
powder soon tarnishes. In ornamenting furniture, 
bronzing is generally employed to represent gilding, a 
variety of bronze called gold-bronze being used, which 
affords an excellent imitation but is not very lasting. 
It is usually applied after the completion of the other 
finishing processes, the ground work being prepared 
in the manner described under Oil-Gilding, and the 
size likewise applied as there described. A small wad 
of cotton-batting is then dipped in the bronze and 
passed gently over the sized portions, causing the 
bronze to adhere. In the other method — that of ap- 
plying the bronze by means of a vehicle — the pre- 
liminaries of whiting the ground and sizing are not 
necessary, a small quantity of bronze being simply 
mixed with the vehicle employed to such a degree of 
fluidity that it will flow easily, and in that condition 
applied with a fine brush. Many preparations are 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 351 

used as vehicles, such as transparent varnish thinned 
with turpentine, gum-Arabic dissolved in water, and 
gold-size reduced with parchment-size. There are a 
variety of colors in bronze-powders, and to produce 
the best effect the size or vehicle should be of a color 
similar to that of the bronze used; in gold-size the 
coloring pigment is ochre, and in its place, for green- 
bronze, red-bronze, or blue-bronze, may be employed 
respectively verditer, vermilion or Prussian blue, a 
very small quantity being sufficient. In bronzing on 
painted work the ground should be as nearly as pos- 
sible the color of the bronze to be applied. 



352 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

GLUE. 

Glue. — Glue is prepared from waste pieces of skin, 
horns, hoofs, and other animal offal. These are 
steeped, washed, boiled, strained, melted, reboiled and 
cast into square cakes, which are then dried. The 
strongest kind of glue is made from the hides of oxen ; 
that from the bones and sinews is weaker. The older 
the animal the stronger the glue. Good glue should 
be hard in the cake, of a strong, dark color, almost 
transparent, free from black or cloudy spots, and with 
little or no smell. The best sorts are transparent and 
of a clear amber color. Inferior kinds are sometimes 
contaminated with the lime used for removing the hair 
from the skins of which they are made. The best glue 
swells considerably (the more the better) when im- 
mersed in cold water, but does not dissolve, and re- 
turns to its former size when dry. Inferior glue made 
from bones, will, however, dissolve almost entirely in 
cold water. 

To Prepare Glue. — To prepare glue for use it should 
be broken up into small pieces, and soaked in as much 
cold water as will cover it, for about twelve hours. It 
should then be melted in a double glue pot, covered 
to keep the glue from dirt. Care must be taken to keep 
the outer vessel full of water, so that the glue shall not 
burn, or be brought to a temperature higher than that 
of boiling water. The glue is allowed to simmer for 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 353 

two or three hours, then gradually melted, so much hot 
water being added as will make it liquid enough, just 
to run off a brush in a continuous stream, without 
breaking into drops. When the glue is done with, some 
boiling water should be added to make it very thin 
before it is put away. Freshly-made glue is stronger 
than that which has been repeatedly melted. Too large 
a quantity should not therefore be made at a time. Glue 
may be freed from the foreign animal matter generally 
in it by softening it in cold water, washing it with the 
same several times, till it no longer gives out any color, 
then bruising it with the hand, and suspending it in a 
linen bag beneath the surface of a large quantity of 
water at 66° Fahr. By doing this the pure glue is re- 
tained in the bag, and the soluble impurities pass 
through. If the softened glue be heated to 122 with- 
out water, and filtered, some other impurities will be 
retained by the filter, and a colorless solution of glue 
be obtained. 

The addition of a little bichromate of potash will 
render glue impervious to moisture after exposing to 
the light, and a small quantity of methylated spirits 
will greatly improve its keeping qualities. 

Mixing Glue. — A minimum amount of glue should 
be used in good work, and it should be applied as hot 
as possible. The surfaces of the wood to be united 
should be clean, dry, and true ; they should be brought 
together as tightly as possible, so that the superfluous 



354 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

glue is squeezed out. The cohesion of a piece of solid 
glue, or the force required to separate one square inch, 
is four thousand pounds. The strength of common 
glue for coarse work is increased by the addition of a 
little powdered chalk. The hotter the glue the greater 
its cohesion; therefore in all large and long joints the 
glue should be applied immediately after boiling. Glue 
loses much of its strength by frequent re-melting ; that 
glue, therefore, which is newly made, is much prefer- 
able to that which has been re-boiled. 

Glue Pot. — A glue pot recently perfected consists of 
a circular kerosene lamp, made of tin, resting upon a 
tin bottom 8y 2 inches in diameter. The lamp is fitted 
with a tin chimney in place of glass, and fitted with a 
small aperture, covered with mica, so as to see how to 
regulate the flame. The glue pot is made of copper, 
tinned on the inside and supported upon a rim setting 
up about six inches from the bottom of the lamp, the 
rim supported by three legs, soldered and riveted to 
the rim and bottom of lamp rest. The pot in which 
the bottom is placed has a portion of the bottom arched, 
to give more heating surface, and connecting with the 
chamber under the pot is a flue, passing out and up 
alongside of the pot, which carries off any smoke from 
the lamp, and also acts as a draft to the flame. This 
pot is five inches in diameter, and about six inches high. 
The pot for the reception of the glue is set in the 
same as an ordinary glue pot, and will hold about a 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 355 

quart of glue. The whole can be carried to any place 
where you wish to use it, and still have the heat kept 
up. The cost of oil is but a few cents a week. 

Another improvement is in the pot being of copper, 
tinned. It will not corrode and spoil the glue, as is 
the case with iron. 

French cabinet-makers use a glue pot with an inside 
pan made of glazed earthenware and divided radially 
into three divisions, in one of which is kept strong 
glue, in another weaker, and in the third water only, 
with a brush or piece of sponge for cleaning off super- 
fluous glue from the work. 

A few holes bored near the top of the inner vessel of 
a glue pot by admitting steam from the outer vessel 
will prevent the glue from solidifying on the side. 
They need not be bored round the whole circumference 
of the pot, to allow of pouring out the glue if necessary. 

To Prevent Glue Cracking. — Glue frequently cracks 
because of the dryness of the air in rooms warmed by 
.stoves. The addition of chloride of calcium to glue 
will prevent this disagreeable property of cracking. 
Chloride of calcium is such a deliquescent salt that it 
attracts enough moisture to prevent the glue from 
cracking. Glue thus prepared will adhere to glass, 
metal, etc., and can be used for putting on labels with- 
out danger of their dropping off. 

Strong Glue to Resist Moisture. — Dissolve gum- 
sandarac and mastic, of each a quarter of an ounce, in 



356 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

a quarter of a pint of spirits of wine, to which add a" 
quarter of an ounce of clear turpentine; now take 
strong glue, or that in which isinglass has been dis- 
solved; then, putting the gums into a double glue-pot, 
add by degrees the glue, constantly stirring it over the 
fire till the whole is well incorporated ; strain it through 
a cloth, and it is ready for use. You may now return 
it to the glue pot, and add half an ounce of very finely- 
powdered glass ; use it quite hot. If you join two pieces, 
of wood together with it, you may, when perfectly hard 
and dry, immerse it in water, and the joint will not 
separate. 

Glue to Resist Moisture. — To two quarts of skimmed 
milk add half a pound of the best glue ; melt them to- 
gether, taking care they do not boil over, and you will 
have a very strong glue, which will resist damp or 
moisture. 

Portable Glue. — Boil one pound of the best glue, 
strain it very clear; boil also four ounces of isinglass; 
put it into a double glue-pot, with half a pound of fine 
brown sugar, and boil it pretty thick ; then pour it into 
plates or moulds. When cold you may cut and dry 
them for the pocket. 

This glue is very useful to draughtsmen, architects* 
etc., as it immediately dilutes in warm water, and 
fastens the paper without the process of dampening; 
or, it may be used by softening it in the mouth/ and 
applying it to the paper. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 357 

FRESH AIR IN THE GLUE ROOM. 

How to get fresh air in the glue room during the 
hot periods of summer, and at the same time not have 
the disturbing drafts that evaporate thinly-spread glue, 
is quite a problem. Yet, like many other problems, it 
is largely a matter of attention to details. . There are 
various ways of ventilating rooms so as to get fresh 
air without getting a strong current. The temptation 
is naturally strong to throw open windows and doors 
in hot weather, so as to have a breeze, but generally 
this is the very thing one must guard against. 

Some glue rooms that have windows on one side 
and the other three sides carefully inclosed, may have 
the windows opened without producing a strong draft, 
but, even so, it is better to have window screens made 
of fine, close-meshed wire, something like those used 
on railway trains to keep out the dust. They will help 
keep out the dust, keep out the draft, and also keep out 
insects that are tempted by the odor of the glue to make 
a visit to the glue room. There are other variations, 
such as letting down the top windows instead of raising 
the bottom ones; others in which a box-like arrange- 
ment opening upward instead of straight in, is inserted 
under the window to let in the fresh air and turn it 
upward instead of across the room. These are me- 
chanical ventilators that can be used for scientifically 
ventilating a room without producing currents. And 



358 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

there are, in fact, many ways to get around this draft 
business, and while their use may deprive the glue 
room of some of the breeziness that is inviting in sum- 
mer, still they will furnish fresh air in a manner that 
is more healthful to those working in it, as well as 
less damaging to the glue work than strong currents. 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 359 

MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 

To Raise Old Veneers. — First, wash the surface with 
boiling water, and, with a coarse cloth, remove dirt or 
grease; then place it before the fire, or heat it with a 
caul; oil its surface with common linseed-oil, place it 
again to the fire, and the heat will make the oil pene- 
trate quite through the veneer, and soften the glue un- 
derneath ; then, while hot, raise the edge gently with a 
chisel, and it will separate completely from the ground ; 
be careful not to use too great force, or the work will 
be spoiled. Again, if it should get cold during the 
operation, apply more oil, and heat it again. Repeat 
this process till the veneer is entirely separated, then 
wash off the old glue and proceed to lay it again as 
a new veneer. 

To Take Out Bruises in Furniture. — Wet the part 
with warm water; double a piece of brown paper five 
or six times, soak it, and lay it on the place ; apply on 
that a hot flat-iron till the moisture is evaporated. If 
the bruise be not gone, repeat the process. After two 
or three applications, the dent or bruise will be raised 
level with the surface. If the bruise be small, merely 
soak it with warm water, and apply a red-hot poker 
very near the surface; keep it continually wet, and in 
a few minutes the bruise will disappear. 

To Make Paste for Laying Cloth or Leather. — To 
a pint of the best wheaten flour add resin, very finely 



360 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

powdered, about two large spoonfuls; of alum, one 
spoonful, in powder; mix them all well together, put 
them into a pan, and add by degrees soft or rain water, 
carefully stirring it till it is of the consistence of thin- 
nish cream; put it into a saucepan over a clear fire, 
keeping it constantly stirred, that it may not get lumpy. 
When it is of a stiff consistence, so that the spoon will 
stand upright in it, it is done enough. Be careful to 
stir it well from the bottom, for it will burn if not well 
attended to. Empty it out into a pan and cover it over 
till cold, to prevent a skin forming on the top, which 
would make it lumpy. 

This paste is very superior for the purpose, and ad- 
hesive. To use it for cloth or baize, spread the paste 
evenly and smoothly on the top of the table, and lay 
the cloth on it, pressing and smoothing it with a flat 
piece of wood; let it remain till dry; then trim the 
edges close to the cross-banding. If you cut it close 
at first, it will, in drying, shrink and look bad where 
it meets the banding all round. If used for leather, 
the leather must be first previously damped, and then 
the paste spread over it; then lay it on the table, and 
rub it smooth and level with a linen cloth, and cut the 
edges close to the banding with a short knife. Some 
lay their table cover with glue instead of paste, and for 
cloth perhaps it is the best method; but for leather it 
is not proper, as glue is apt to run through. In using 
it for cloth, great care must be taken that the glue be 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 361 

not too thin, and that the cloth be well rubbed down 
with a thick piece of wood made hot at the fire, for the 
glue soon chills. By this method, the edges may be cut 
off close to the border at once. 

Cements for Stopping Flaws in Wood. — Put any 
quantity of fine sawdust of the same wood your work 
is made with into an earthen pan, and pour boiling 
water on it, stir it well, and let it remain for a week 
or ten days, occasionally stirring it; then boil it for 
some time, and it will be of the consistence of pulp or 
paste ; put it into a coarse cloth, and squeeze all the 
moisture from it. Keep for use, and, when wanted, 
mix a sufficient quantity of thin glue to make it into 
a paste ; rub it well into the cracks, or fill up the holes 
in your work with it. When quite hard and dry, clean 
your work off, and if carefully done, you will scarcely 
discern the imperfection. 

Mahogany-Colored Cement. — Melt two ounces of 
beeswax and half an ounce of Indian red,, and a small 
quantity of yellow ochre, to bring the. cement to the 
desired color ; keep it in a pipkin for use. , 

Cement for Turners. — Melt together beeswax, one 
ounce ; resin, half an ounce ; and pitch, half an ounce ; 
stir in the mixture some very fine brickdust to give it a 
body. If too soft, add more resin; if too hard, more 
wax. When nearly cold, make it up into cakes or 
rolls, which keep for use. 

This will be found, very useful for fastening any 



362 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

piece of wood on the chuck, which is done by applying 
the roller of cement to the chuck and it will adhere 
with sufficient force. 

To Cut Good Steel Scrapers. — Part of the blade of a 
broken saw makes the best scrapers ; but, as it is hard, 
it is very difficult to cut it into the required form. The 
best and most expeditious way is to mark it out to the 
size wanted, and then to place the blade or steel plate 
in a vice whose chaps shut very close, placing the mark 
even with the face of the vise, and the part to be cut 
to waste above the vise. Then with a cold-chisel, or a 
common steel-firmer that has its basil broken off, hold- 
ing it close to the vise and rather inclined upwards, 
begin at one end of the steel plate, and with a sharp 
blow of the hammer it will cut it. Keep going on by 
degrees, and you will with ease cut it to the shape re- 
quired ; then grind the edges of your scraper level, and 
finish by rubbing it on your oil stone. 

To Clean Oil Paintings. — Wash with a sponge or a 
soft leather and water, and dry by rubbing with a silk 
handkerchief. When the picture is very dirty, take it 
out of its frame, procure a clean towel, and making it 
quite wet, lay it on the face of the picture, sprinkling 
it from time to time with clear soft water ; let it remain 
wet for two or three days ; take the cloth off and renew 
it with a fresh one; after wiping the picture with a 
clean wet sponge, repeat the process till all the dirt is 
soaked out ; then wash it well with a soft sponge, and let 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 363 

it get dry; rub it with some clear nut or linseed oil. 
Spirits of wine and turpentine may be used to dissolve 
the hard old varnish, but they will attack the paint as 
well as the varnish if the further action of the spirits 
is not stopped at the proper time by using water freely. 

Cleaning Varnished Pictures. — There are conditions 
where the above simple process will not accomplish 
what is required ; where a thick coating of varnish has 
been applied to the picture, and it has been hung in a 
smoky room, and dust and dirt has been allowed to 
gather and remain; then it is that no high lights will 
be visible, the sky will be dirty, no distance visible, and 
perhaps the figures in the foreground very indistinct. 
Under these conditions the varnish must be either re- 
moved or the smoke and dirt must be brought out of the 
varnish. If it is thought desirable to try the latter, 
the following receipt will be found valuable for the 
purpose: 2 oz. wood naptha, 1 oz. spirits of salts, % 
pint of linseed-oil. 

Mix the above well together, and before using shake 
the bottle. It can be used as follows : Get some soft 
linen rag, and make up a soft pad, which place on the 
mouth of the bottle and shake up some of the mixture 
into the pad, then commence rubbing the picture with 
a circular motion, and when nearly dry again give the 
pad another dressing of mixture, and continue this 
mode of procedure for some time, when the picture will 
gradually come out in all its detail. 



364 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

Cleaning Engravings. — Put the engraving on a 
smooth board, cover it thinly with common salt finely 
powdered. Squeeze lemon juice upon the salt so as to 
dissolve a considerable portion of it; elevate one end 
of the board so that it may form an angle of about 
'45 or 50 degrees. Pour on the engraving boiling water 
from a tea kettle until the salt and lemon juice be all 
washed off. The engraving then will be perfectly clean 
and free from stains. It must be dried on the board or 
some smooth surface gradually. If dried by the fire or 
the sun it will be tinged with a yellow color. 

Cleaning Engravings. — Presuming these to be 
mounted, proceed in the following manner: Cut a 
stale loaf in half, with a perfectly clean knife ; pare the 
crust away from the edges. Now place the engravings 
on a perfectly flat table, and rubbing the surface with the 
fresh-cut bread, in circular sweeps, lightly but firmly 
performed, will remove 1 all superficial markings: Now 
soak the prints for a short time in a dilute solution of 
hydrochloric acid," say 1 part acid to rocrof water, and 
then remove them into -a vessel containing a sufficient 
quantity of clear chloride lime -water to cover them. 
Leave them there until bleached to the desired point: 
Now remove, rinse well by allowing to stand an hour 
in a pan in which a constant stream of water is allowed 
to flow, and finally dry off by spreading on clean cloths. 
Perhaps -the sheets- may -require ironing between two 
sheets of clean paper; 



THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 365 

To Smooth a Damaged Picture. — Paintings some- 
times get convex and concave patches on their surface, 
owing to pressure on one side or the other, and these 
inequalities cause a great deal of trouble to bring out. 
The most successful way is to well wet both sides of 
the picture on the spot, and keep it under pressure till 
dry. With small pictures the quickest way would be to 
take them off the stretcher and lay them in a press, with 
a light pressure between soft sheets of paper. 

Embossed Gilding for Illuminating. — Gilding of 
figures and letters on paper and for the embellishment 
of manuscripts, is performed with shell gold tempered 
with gum water; or the characters may be drawn with 
a milky solution- of gum ammanacum made in water, 
and ^old leaf applied upon them when almost dry ; they 
may again be sufficiently moistened for receiving the 
gold by breathing on them. Letters raised from the 
surface, if paper or parchment in the manner of em- 
bossed work, such as are seen on ancient manuscripts, 
may be formed either by friction on a proper body with 
a solid piece of gold, or by leaf gold. 

The former method is practiced by tempering pul- 
verizers' crystal with strong gum water, and with this 
paste forming the letters ; when they are dry, they are 
rubbed with a piece of solid gold as in polishing, and 
the letters will appear as if gilt with burnished gold. 
The letters are formed with an embossed figure, either 
of the separate letters or of whole words cut in steel, 



366 THE PRACTICAL CABINET MAKER 

and each letter of these stamps when they are used, is 
oiled evenly with a feather. Then fill these concave 
letters with the above paste, and strike the stamps in a 
perpendicular direction on the paper or vellum laid on 
sheets of soft paper. 

When the embossed letters are formed with leaf 
gold, the following or a similar composition must be 
used. Thicken beaten whites of eggs with as much 
vermilion as is necessary to give them the consistence 
of paste ; use the stamps as before, and when the letters 
are dry moisten them by a small pencil with strong gum 
water, and when this is almost dry cover the letters 
with leaf gold, pressing it close to every part of them 
with cotton wood ; when dry, burnish. 



INDEX 



A 

Page 

American Mechanics 12 

Apprentice Question 16 

Art, The New 186 

B 

Barogne Style 74 

Beds, Covered 140 

Elaborate 153 

German Covered 160 

Napoleonic 164 

Roman 104 

With Canopy 143 

Greek and Roman 31 

Bellows and Chairs, Carved 51 

Bench Hands 11 

Bleaching 293 

Book-Cases, Revolving, How to Make 306 

Sheraton 167 

Books on Cabinet Making 18 

British Museum Treasures 103 

Burnishing 347 

C 

Cabinet Makers, Egyptian 24 

Cabinets 141 

Cairene 47 

Costly 151, 202 

French 56 

Hanging '.209 

Inlaid 69 

Wine 100 

Candelabra 28 

Carriages and Carts, Old 45 

Cements, Cabinet Maker's 361 

Chairs, Beds and Tables, Egyptian 22 

367 



Page 

Chairs, Corner 264 

Coronation 44 

Double, by Sheraton 174 

Dutch 191 

Easy Backed . . . 156 

Gothic 127 

Greek 26 

Heppelwhite v::--. .. . . . , 182 

High Backed 194 

How to Make 267 

Marie Antoinette 150 

Of Dagobert 38 

Of State 129 

Of St. Maximian 36 

Old .....193 

Old Spanish 165 

Ponderous 195 

Queen Hatasus 117 

Scandinavian 37 

Throne ... 34 

Two German 161 

Chinese Style 85 

Work \ 138 

Chippendale, Thomas 84 

Chippendale Work 181 

Cinquecento Period 52 

Classical Style 121 

Cleaning Engravings 364 

Oil Paintings 362 

Clock, Grandfather's 260 

Old Mahogany 262 

Coffers, Carved 50 

Egyptian 106 

Marriage 49 

Couch 157 

Cutting Veneers 278 

Dovetailing 222 

Method of 269 

F 

Framed Work . . 232 

French Polishing 285 

French Renaissance 57 

Fumigating 295 

Fumigation, Natural 295 

Furniture, Anglo-Norman . . . . 39 

Anglo-Saxon 38 

Assyrian 22 

368 " 



Page 

Furniture Byzantine 35 

Chaldean 135 

Dining Room 214 

Dutch 61 

English ' V.'.V 58 

Etruscan 27 

Fashion in 94 

Flemish 58 

Fourteenth Century . . 137 

French 55 

Hand Made '.'.' 15 

History of 19 

Homely 13 

Indian 64 

King Solomon's 23 

Lacquered 88 

Making 10 

Medieval .. 41 

Old 93, 131 

Pompeiian 31 

Roman 27 

Saracenic . 45 

Scriptural 21 

Siam 126 

Solid Wood .-...- .' 99 

Some Egyptian 122 

Spanish .... 59 

Styles and Details of ..... .. 90 

Venetian 61 

G 

German Renaissance , ; 58 

Gibbons, Grenling, Carver 71 

Gilding, Embossed 365 

Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing . . 339 

Glue 352 

Portable 356 

Pot 354 

Room, Fresh Air in 357 

Gothic Period 40 

Great Bed of Ware 58 

H 

Hinges 236 

Hinge for Table '. 236 

Hinging, General 238 

Household Article, Old 99 

369 



I 

Page 

Inlaid Work 67 

Interior, Oriental 188 

Italian Renaissance 48 

J 

Job Work 12 

Joints, Cabinet 225 

Cabinet Maker's 217 

Capped 228 

Dowel 219 

Feather 220 

Grooved 218 

Miter 226 

Mortise and Tenon 223 

Plain Glued 218 

Rule 240 

Scribed 229 

E 

Koran Holder 190 

L 

L'Art Nouveau 186 

Lamp Stand 32 

Louis Quatorze Period 63 

Louis Quinze Period 70 

M 

Machine Men 14 

Making Drawers Slide Easily 272 

Marquetry 66 

Middle Age Interior 130 

Mirror Frames 65 

Mirrors, Hand 26 

Mission and Crafts Examples 311 

Fads 187 

Work 243 

Mobilia 102 

Moorish Taste Ill 

Mouldings, Built up 234 

Planted 230 

Solid 230 

Mummy Cases 22 

N 

Novelty 95 

Novelty, Taste and Utility 112 

370 





Page 

Oil Polishing 302 

P 

Picture Frames, Composition for 348 

Pierre Boulle 64 

Plate I. Gothic Interior 101 

Plate II. Louis XV and XVI Details 107 

Plate III. Louis Seize Detail 113 

Plate IV. Two Tables 132 

Plate V. Empire Details 134 

Plate VI. Empire Style 136 

Plate VII. German Renaissance 138 

Plate VIII. Chippendale Style 155 

Plate IX. Chippendale Details 159 

Plate X. Sheraton Style 163 

Plate XI. Heppelwhite Details 166 

Plate XII. Heppelwhite Style 170 

Plate Xin. Adam's Style 177 

Plate XIV. Adam's Interior 183 

Plate XV. Swiss Examples 189 

Plate XVI. The New Art Interior 192 

Q 

Quattrocento Period 49 

R 

Receipts, Miscellaneous 359 

Repairs 293 

Revivers for Furniture 293 

Roman Curule 29 

S 

Seats, Antique 35 

Of the Ancients 43 

Seventeenth Century Work 108 

Sideboards 206 

Details of 251 

Furnished 254 

How to Make 247 

View of 248 

Smothing a Damaged Picture 365 

Sofa, Sheraton 175 

Staining and Varnishing 304 

Style, Details of 90 

Domestic 121 

Empire 86 

371 



Page 

Style, Florid 121 

Grotesque 121 

Mannerisms of 92 

Marie Antoinette 92 

Of Cabinet Work 17 

Persian . . . . 64 

Portuguese . . . . . 64 

Rococo 73 

Romanesque 38 

Turkish 90 

Vernis Martin 77 

Styles, Synopsis of . . . 203 

Subdivision of Work 11 

Sweating Out 394 

T 

Tabernacle 21 

Table, Circular 158 

Dining 199 

Double 83 

Dressing . . 78 

Handy . . ... ....245 

Marie Antoinette 148 

Mission 241 

Riesner 152 

Roman 30 

Square 197 

Unique Circular 179 

Taste in Construction 115 

Throne, Assyrian 25 

Tools, Workman's 215 

Trade Unionism ...212 

U 

Upholsterer's Trade : . . 97 

Utility 116 

V 

Vehicles, Covered 46 

Veneered Work, Modern 99 

Veneering, Staining and Finishing 276 

W 

Wax Polishing 299 

Work-Shop Kinks and Staining Receipts 324 

Writing Desk 81 

Writing Desk and Cabinet 200 



372 










A 





















W 



V 


















































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